The 9 Layers Of Hell Essay - 1682 Words

Dante Alighieri was a major Italian poet born in 1265 A.D know most famously for his Epic poem, the Devine Comedy. The Devine Comedy is a narration of Dante’s journey through Hell, purgatory and finally Heaven. Dante utilizes the notion of hell to encourage, admonish and warn his readers of the contrapasso of their sins, the different layers of hell, and famous leaders of his time. This essay is an exposition, interpretation and critical analysis of the 9 layers of Hell depicted in Dante’s epic, the Inferno. To begin Dante’s trip to heaven to be with his one true love Beatrice, he must first travel through hell. Directly through the gates of hell is the outlying regions of Hell, or Ante-inferno. This is the area that houses those who did not commit to good or evil, but who lived their lives without making conscious moral choices. These souls have been denied by both heaven and hell. This does not mean Ante-inferno is much more pleasant than hell. Souls here must constantly chase after blank banners while flies and wasps constantly bite them and worms consume their blood and tears. Neutral angels do the tormenting in this place. These are the angels that did not choose God nor Satan in the war of heaven. This first punishment we see in our journey through hell sets the stage for punishments that fit the crime. We see souls having to chase a blank banner symbolizing the meaninglessness of their time on earth. In the afterlife wasps and flies are present to stingShow MoreRela tedEssay on Fear in Cellar Stairs1021 Words   |  5 PagesFear in Cellar Stairs  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Poetry is about emotion -- not only the emotion displayed in the many layers   of a poems language, but also the emotional layers created in the reader.    Some poetry can be light and happy, other poetry can be ecstatic and ethereal;      and at the opposite extreme, poetry can be dark and downright threatening. Such   Ã‚  Ã‚   a poem is Cellar Stairs by the contemporary poet Thomas Lux.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Its rickety down to the dark, states theRead MoreEvaluation Of Workshops And Dante Inferno1624 Words   |  7 Pagesaway from him by Lucifer or Satan.Dante then met Virgil a famous poet born before Christ therefore he was stuck in limbo which is not hell or heaven. Dante and Virgil entered the wide gates of Hell and descended through the nine circles.. In each circle they saw sinners being punished for their sins on earth. We also explored William Blake’s poem the Proverbs of Hell including quotes in our narration using it to present the Seven Deadly Sins with accuracy. For our first workshop we explored andRead MoreDeath in What Dreams May Come and Dantes Inferno Essay1086 Words   |  5 PagesDreams May Come and Dantes Inferno Death and what comes after has always been a subject of great interest and uncertainty. Many have tried to depict their own vision of the afterlife, be it heaven or hell, paradiso or inferno. Here, I will discuss the similarities and differences in the hell represented in the movie What Dreams May Come and the Inferno of Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy. What Dreams May Come is a movie about two soul mates, Chris (Robin Williams) and Annie (Anabella Sciorra)Read MoreDeath : A Life Force955 Words   |  4 Pagesrituals to the dead so the Ka could be free to unite with the ba to make spirit akh that transitioned to a new life with the gods. The unification was of dire importance as it prevented the deceased from dying again, a death in which there is no return (9 Roba, 13, 1999).Christians believe in the soul, the immortal entity placed into our body at birth and leaves at death. It required no fancy rituals to enter nor leave the body. This concept ties back to the monotheism and polytheism where there couldRead MoreAnalysis Of The Garden Of Earthly Delights1407 Words   |  6 Pagespainted from 1500 to 1502. â€Å"The Haywain† which was a three panel painting. In the first panel, Bosch illustrates Adam and Eve. In the center panel, Bosch paints clergy and peasants preforming sinful behavior. Finally, in the last panel Bosch paints hell. The second example is â€Å"The Last Judgement† (as shown in figure 4) which he painted in the year of 1504. The center panel shows the fall of humanity. The remaining two interior panels show sin, chaos and violence. The final example that we can useRead MoreReligious Beliefs on the After-Life Essay965 Words   |  4 Pages Karma will decide what the soul is born as; the soul can take birth in a lower life of an insect or a higher life of humans (Thillainathan, 2009). It is interesting to note that, even in Hinduism Heaven and Hell exists. The soul will either enjoy the riches of heaven of suffer in hell until the results of its Karma are satisfied (Gnanasambandan. 1998). The soul will later on be sent back to Earth to get another chance for a complete freedom. This complete freedom is called Moksha, where theRead More The Downside to Land Use and Urban Development Essay1535 Words   |  7 Pages27-28). This gas floats up toward the sun into the stratosph ere, and breaks apart (due to the suns radiation).   The Carbon and the Fluoride dont do much but the Chlorine literally eats away at the Ozone layer like an acid.   Why is that bad?   Might you ask, well it is harmful because the Ozone Layer protects everything on Earth from Ultra Violet Radiation.   This in turn makes the Earth hotter.   To make the Earth even hotter add to this Carbon Dioxide (CO2), a pollutant produced by combustion enginesRead MorePhilosophical Strain in the Works of Joseph Addison1553 Words   |  7 Pagesexamining two of his works: Reflections in Westminster Abbey and The Vision of Mirza. In the former, the main theme seems to be that of death and Addison deliberates freely upon his ideas and reflections regarding the same. In the latter, we find many layers of philosophical meaning and allegory embedded within the work which is basically a translation of a Persian manuscript which philosophizes upon the very purpose of human existence. In Reflections in Westminster Abbey, Addison talks about hisRead MoreDinosaurs : What Are Dinosaurs?1619 Words   |  7 Pages(BBC, 2017). Triceratops The Triceratops was one of the last herbivores that was found in North America. The first bones of a Triceratops  were discovered in 1887 by Othniel C. Marsh in Denver which was a set of horns and skull (Castro, J. 2016). Hell Creek Formation is a division of rocks in North America, that includes eastern Montana and portions of North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming, where over 200 bones were discovered and more than 50 Triceratops found. While no complete skeleton has beenRead MoreAnalysis Of John Hughes s The Tale Of Asylum 1519 Words   |  7 Pagesavant-garde novels that bend reality and fiction. It contains powerful connections between asylum seekers and the notion of purgatory, waiting for their claim to be processed and discover whether they will, as the blurb implies, be destined for ‘Paradise or Hell’ (Hughes 2012). The tale also has strong links to the canticle ‘Purgartorio’ from Dante Alligheri’s The Divine Comedy as well as classical religious iconography and Greek mythology. Michael Ryan (1999, 133) links Kafka’s Metamorphosis to ‘Samsara’

Outrageous Autobiography Essay Samples College Tips

Outrageous Autobiography Essay Samples College Tips School is essential to me because without school it would be difficult to earn a living. If you wish to get into a great college and locate a great job, you will need to say that you're worth it and will cope with this. Upcoming college students might also be requested to compose a college essay for a portion of their first requirements. Fully being a happy high school student wouldn't be possible without my loved ones. Whatever the case, it's something you're sharing to present some personal qualities or make an intriguing outcome. To the contrary, success is all about recognizing your weaknesses and accepting support from those who genuinely need to aid you. Thus, when you plan your autobiography, make certain to concentrate on events that had significant influence on your life and totally ignore the tidbits. There is a plethora of experiences to select from. Although autobiographical essays may be an abbreviated overview of a whole life, they normally concentrate on a specific accomplishment or experience. Make it your wish to include anecdotes on your first successes and failures. Without strong internal motivation, it is virtually impossible to turn into successful. It's possible to write about your accomplishments but in addition, you need to compose the flaws that have made you exactly what you are. The Key to Successful Autobiography Essay Samples College It might be hard to choose what precisely to speak about as the essay ought to be based on some impressions one wants to tell about as a result of some certain reason. Then, the essay ought to have a few body paragraphs or chapters. Our essay is going to be a superior introduction to the scientific writings you'll be assigned during your academic decades. To put it differently, it's possible to say that it's an essay about yourself. Your college essay should contain information that are related to the instruction provided to you. Writing an MBA essay is a challenging task because you have to cover many things and you will need to make certain that you compose the very best. Before you commence writing your college essay, you might need to see the essay examplesA that we've listed for you, so that you may have more idea on what things to put in the college essay which you will create. Your scholarship essay is a rather important portion of your application. The primary goal of essay writing services is to assist you with issue and support as you write your paper. The introduction the introduction appears to have too little focus. These seven sample essays respond to a range of thought-provoking questions. In this instance, attempt to hit the minimal words required and make certain that the essay which you will write is packed with relevant info and beneficial information. Things You Should Know About Aut obiography Essay Samples College The 90s were an excellent time for technical individuals. Although everyone truly has a story to tell, not everybody would look at going out of their way to really let the world know their story. Autobiography Essay Samples College There's a writing craft or a technique that is able to make your story come to life. In the event the story was non-chronological, be certain that by the conclusion of an autobiographical essay all of it comes together as one comprehensive piece. It is crucial to keep in mind that you don't have to inform your story chronologically. Everything in your story needs to be accurate. Even if you believe you don't have a lot to put in your memoir, you are able to still make it quite intriguing. You may as well start right with the story rather than putting a very long autobiography introduction. You've successfully finished writing your autobiography speaking about your life. The manner of your autobiography must be neutral. If you are searching for sample autobiography essay, you will most likely discover a lot of them in Internet. Interesting lives result in good autobiographies. Your autobiography must be logical, and facts about your life needs to be presented in a chronological order. Writing an autobiography for each man is a distinctly individual experience but there are a few topics that are crucial to cover. The narrative section of an autobiography essay is crucial and ought to be judiciously taken care of! Even though it might be considered tough, writing an autobiography essay is intriguing and rewarding not only for presentation except to discover you in a new light. Use I as it's your autobiography. In addition, the autobiography ought to be written in first person. The Birth of Autobiography Essay Samples College Autobiographical essay writing can on occasion be an intimidating job, especially if the writer does not have any prior expertise within this sort of academic writing. Your essay has to be simple to understand that's the reason it's much better to avoid long complicated sentences and phrases. Nearly all writers seek the expert services of copy editors. Guidelines to writing the autobiographical story include a crystal clear and concise approach to a certain part of your life.

Safety in the Manufacturing Industry Free Essays

Safety is the state of being free from harm or danger of any kind. Safety is usually achieved through careful planning and the removal of all vulnerable sources of danger or any other that are prone to arise. The first step in the management of any environment to ensure that safety is achieved involves the identification of the potential sources of danger. We will write a custom essay sample on Safety in the Manufacturing Industry or any similar topic only for you Order Now An array of all the panic triggers is usually made and each is tackled single-handedly. Failure to identify all the potential sources of danger may cause a lot of unforeseen harm (Stellman, 1998). In any workplace, there lie very many potential causes of harm and injury. The repercussions are likely to be very serious given that many places of work usually have hordes of people going about their business and most of the times many are oblivious of any form of lurking danger. In case of any accident that may occur, the number of casualties in many places of work is likely to be very high. The effects of such accidents can however mitigated by the careful consideration of all factors by the planners and the devising of ways to deal with the accidents prior to their occurrence. Many of the hazards that may occur in most working places and cause loss of lives and damage of property includes fire, floods, chemical explosions, release of poisonous gases and the risk of being shred by machines and being cut by very sharp objects (Moi, 1993). Manufacturing Industries: Manufacturing industries are the type of industries that are involved with the production of goods for the end user markets. Such industries produce these goods in large masses; mass production, and the raw materials are brought to these industries in bulk. A lot of machines and are used in various processes within these industries and a lot of manpower is also incorporated in order to increase the production by these industries. All the processes, right from the offloading of the raw materials to the packing of the finished products involve a lot of manpower and machines and many accidents that jeopardize the workers’ safety are likely to happen in any of these stages. Different manufacturing industries usually have different strategies of ensuring their employees’ safety and reducing the occurrence of accidents. Safety in the manufacturing industries: It is mandatory for all industries to ensure that their employees are safe and are free from any kind of harm in the course of duty at these industries. There exists a set of laws that govern how al industries ensure the safety of their employees while at work in the industries. The employees are also obligated to follow the policies, procedures and the directives that are set out in these laws, to the letter. They are also expected to be on protective gear provided by the industry at all times. They are expected to adhere to all the safety rules that are laid out by their employers. The employers are on the other hand expected to give directives to their employees that would be implemented in case of any tragedy and even put signs at strategic places within these industries. The signs must be brief and clear to the employees in order to avoid any confusion whenever there is an accident of any kind (Poltev, 1986). The Passing of the Safety Act: It is estimated that about six thousand workers in the USA die every year due to workplace injuries, another fifty thousand workers die because of exposure to workplace hazards and millions of others die because of non-fatal injuries sustained at their workplaces. This was estimated to be depriving American businesses about one hundred and twenty five billion dollars per year. The government is in all ways trying to curb the occurrence of such by ensuring the safety of every employee at his or her place of work. Safety at the workplace goes a long way to see the cultivation of a good and better job culture at the place of work. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), was passed by the congress in 1970. This act was passed in order to ensure that each and every worker in the nation of USA was working under conditions that are safe physically and even health wise. Some states, however, have enacted their own laws to protect the workers from any physical or health risks at their places of work though they also do ensure that these laws are as effective as those set in the federal law. The OSHA covers all employees except those who are self-employed and public employees in the state and local government. Responsibilities of the manufacturing industries (employer): According to the OSHA website – www. osha. gov, the Occupational Safety and Health Act stipulates that: The manufacturing industry should provide its employees with well-maintained tools and equipment. This serves to ensure that the probability of the occurrence of an accident due to the ineffectiveness of the equipment. The industry officials should ensure that faulty equipment is replaced or repaired immediately to avoid any casualties of any kind resulting from any accident. The industry should also offer the employees with appropriate protective equipment and clothing in order to protect these workers from bodily harm from the various things that they handle within a day. This facilitates the reduction of the occurrence of accidents and the effects of any hazardous substances that the employee may come in contact with. The manufacturing industries must also take their employees for medical examinations prior to and after any activity that may be involving any hazardous substances (Rabinowitz, 2002). In case of any signs of infection, the treatment and medication should be administered on the patient immediately in order to lower the chances of the employee becoming severely affected. The employees should also be granted access to their medical and exposure records. Such records should always be at their disposal so that they can be always updated about their health status and take any personal measures necessary. The industries must provide training to their employees prior to handling any equipment that may be hazardous. The training should be done as per the standards set by the OSHA. This serves to ensure that the employees are well acquainted with the type of equipment that they use for any particular task that the employer bestows upon them. This kind of training also ensures that there is a reduction in the number of accidents that occur in these industries. The standardized training also ensures that there is uniformity in the way accidents are dealt with and this avoids confusion in case of such accidents occurring abruptly. Accidents should be reported to OSHA within the first eight hours of their occurrence. Those accidents that cause lots of casualties should also be reported within this period. Accidents that leave more than three people hospitalized should also be reported to OSHA within this same period. This facilitates the investigation and evaluation into the cause of the accident and the necessary measures are taken in order to reduce such accidents in future and thus increase safety in the workplace. The employer is also obligated with the duty of posting the OSHA poster (OSHA 3165), which informs the employees of their rights and responsibilities. No discrimination is allowed upon an employee who goes forward to address some grievances to OSHA regarding the workplace. The industries are also obligated to keep records of work-related accidents, injuries, illnesses and their causes. They should also post OSHA citations and abatement verification notices to a worksite. They should also abate cited violations within the set prescribed period. The Responsibilities of the Employee: The employee should review the employer provided OSHA standards, regulations and requirements in order to be well conversant with them and follow them accordingly and report any flaws in order to avoid accidents and other mishaps. The employee should also request for information from the employer regarding emergency procedures so as to avoid confusion at the time of tragedy. The employee should observe each and every directive accordingly (Harms-Ringdahl, 2001). The employee should try and grasp the safety and health training provided by the employer as per OSHA standards. Such training should be administered in cases where some toxic substances are involved. All other procedures set for emergencies should also be carefully studied. If carefully observed and followed to the letter, these rules and regulations can spare many lives and save lots of others in the manufacturing industries (Taylor and Hegney, 2004). How to cite Safety in the Manufacturing Industry, Papers

Interrelationship Between Hospitality And Travel Organisations Tourism Essay Essay Example

Interrelationship Between Hospitality And Travel Organisations Tourism Essay Essay The cordial reception sector is one of the most important service suppliers for the international travel and touristry industry. It includes all concerns which accommodate tourers and travelers when going to other finishs. They are an built-in portion of the overall experience, and must populate up to the criterions which are expected by patronages and those which are set by the industry. Modern web sites such as Trip Advisor besides set criterions based on people s ratings of their personal experiences. These ratings are viewed by possible clients from all over the universe, and can act upon their pick of hotel, motel, or any other adjustment supplier or catering constitution. Task 1- Investigate the cordial reception sector. Adjustment suppliers Hotels By and large, when tourers arrive at their concluding finish their chief involvement is to look into into their hotel room and unwind, particularly after hours of travel. It is hence important that invitees are treated with extreme attention, as they may be tired and perchance irritated after their trip. Hotels within the Euro zone typically keep 1-5 star evaluations which depend on the quality, graduated table, and the figure of comfortss and services which are offered. Hotel evaluations outside the EU are non limited to five stars, such as the extremist epicurean 7 star Burj Al Arab hotel in Dubai. We will write a custom essay sample on Interrelationship Between Hospitality And Travel Organisations Tourism Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Interrelationship Between Hospitality And Travel Organisations Tourism Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Interrelationship Between Hospitality And Travel Organisations Tourism Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Adjustment is a cardinal constituent in bundle vacations. Tourists may choose for budget bundles which include basic 1 to 3 star adjustment, whilst others may choose for higher priced bundles offering 4 to 5 star adjustment. When choosing for epicurean adjustment, invitees may pass a good proportion of their clip at the hotel or resort to do full usage of the comfortss which are being offered. Guests would anticipate to be pampered throughout their stay, peculiarly for the monetary value being paid. If jobs are encountered, they would anticipate a rapid response and immediate action to be taken. 5 star constitutions normally offer 24 hr receptionist and concierge services, gentleman parking for invitees who have rented their ain autos, every bit good as 24 hr amah, care, and room service. One would besides anticipate to hold an in-room mini saloon and safe, personal attention merchandises, high velocity Wi-Fi entree, wash services, gym, watering place and a concern Centre, to call a few. 4 and 3 star hotels offer more of a comfy atmosphere than a epicurean one, whilst 2 and 1 star hotels offer basic, yet clean adjustment, and are more suitable for people who aim to pass most of their clip out-of-doorss. Suites are simple, but include a color telecasting, and an en suite bathroom. In general nevertheless, as the star evaluation lessenings, the installations and services besides decrease in figure, and perchance in quality. Although there may be certain hiccoughs in the services rendered due to human variableness, cleanliness can non endure the same destiny. Strict wellness ordinances should be abided by and enforced by wellness governments on a regular footing to guarantee that hotel operators are giving adequate importance to cleanliness. Cleanliness is so of import that Trip Advisor features it as one of the chief classs which can be rated together with service, location, suites, sleep quality and value for money. Guests can besides endorse up their cleanliness claims with blunt exposures. However, hotel comfortss and services frequently do differ from state to state, every bit good as from trade name to trade name, even within the same finish. As with all companies, it is finally up to the people running the constitutions to populate up to their star evaluations, or more suitably in today s markets, exceed them. Motels and invitee houses A motel is basically a little hotel which is specifically designed for expressway travelers. They originated in the United States when motor trips were going the norm. After a twenty-four hours of traveling, people needed a convenient topographic point to pass the dark before acquiring back on the route. Presently, one of the most popular motel ironss is Motel 6, which has more than 1000 constitutions in North America and Canada, and is run by the international Accor Hotels group. Similarly to motels, invitee houses besides provide a comparatively low-cost alternate to other adjustment. However, unlike motels, guesthouses offer adjustment on a bed and breakfast footing, where the house proprietors would fix a simple homemade breakfast for their invitees. Some travelers specifically opt for themed guesthouses, such as those which are said to be haunted. Camping Parkss, caravanning and Lodges Camping Parkss and Lodges give people the chance to bask nature and the out-of-doorss, an activity which is going progressively rare as people surround themselves with engineering. Caravans and household sized motor vehicles are most normally used by groups of friends or household members for bivouacing trips. Sir oliver lodges are typically found in wooded countries, mountain scopes, or ski resorts, and vary in quality, runing from comparatively basic to more upscale adjustment. They may take the signifier of a group of cabins with common installations or as lone cabins with dedicated installations, which are all popular options for household trips, or romantic pickups. Self-catering flats Self providing flats have become popular as they offer greater flexibleness, even though there is frequently the demand to cook and clean. They besides offer more of a homely atmosphere than motels or hotels as they consist of a kitchen, populating room, and dining country. Renting an flat may really good salvage clients money, particularly if they plan to pass most of the clip out-of-doorss. The high paying tourer may lease a epicurean Villa for a few yearss and engage their ain pantryman, whilst the mean household may make up ones mind to cook for themselves and bask passing their difficult earned money elsewhere. Cruise ships Cruise ships originally catered for the wealthy, nevertheless as costs were lowered and new concern schemes were created, they are now more low-cost to the mean income earner. Companies normally offer long-haul to short-haul sails, some of which are all inclusive and others such as easyCruise which requires frequenters to pay as they go. One would normally happen a huge choice of high quality nutrients on board, largely in buffet signifier. Providing suppliers Catering is cardinal to the success of the touristry and cordial reception industries. It is so of import that providing mercantile establishments can be found in topographic points runing from metropolis Centres and hotels to boats, trains and air hoses. Restaurants The bill of fare, music, atmosphere and pricing are the most important factors in finding which eating house to take. There are eating houses which cater for different demands, runing from low-cost takeawaies to high category and sole constitutions. Restaurants form an built-in portion of a tourer s vacation, some of whom would see the same eating house twenty-four hours after twenty-four hours if it is to their liking, whilst others may make up ones mind to see a different eating house each twenty-four hours. Chain eating houses offer tourists a sense of fiscal security. Tourists know that McDonalds in Portugal will offer the same merchandises as McDonalds in the United Kingdom. On the other manus, when it comes to non-chain eating houses it tends to be less simple. Tourists would frequently see eating houses based on recommendations made by the staff at the concierge of their hotel, from locals, or Trip adviser. Generally one would normally happen providing constitutions to accommodate all gustatory sensations and pockets. If a finish receives high, medium, and low Spenders, so there must be constitutions which cater specifically for them. The top eating houses in the universe are normally Michelin accredited, which is perchance the most olympian of all international eating house awards. A eating house can get a upper limit of three Michelin stars, intending that it is about immaculate in footings of service, nutrient quality and the overall atmosphere. Cafe Cafes used to specialize in hot drinks such as teas and javas. However, they have developed to a great extent since so and now offer a assortment of bites and nutrient offerings. As cafes addition in popularity, they tend to add more to their bill of fare to increase their client base. Cafes are going so popular that McDonalds now has its really ain McCafe, which was established to perchance vie with the likes of Starbucks or other international coffeehouse. Outside catering Cordial reception caterers are of great importance for major events such as conferences, after parties and exhibitions, which attract people from all over the universe. It is up to the organizers to guarantee that all of the participants are prepared to jointly present an unforgettable and alone experience. 5 star hotels are normally chosen for big events as they can afford to strike better balances between quality and monetary value than other lower rated hotels or providing constitutions. Theaters, cinemasand shopping composites. Traveling to the film or theater is frequently non finish without a bite or a drink. It has become usage to hold something to eat or imbibe when watching your front-runner movie or drama. Most films have their really ain bite bars, which serve drinks and bites such as Zea mays evertas and nachos. In Portugal for case, the major shopping composites such as Vasco Da Gama, Colombo shopping Centre, and Cascais Shopping in the Lisbon country have their ain film in-house. Located right following to the film entrances one would happen infinite catering constitutions runing from coffeehouse to ticket dining. Motorway service station Motorway service Stationss throughout the universe offer dining options for expressway travelers, most of which have simple coffeehouse which besides offer bites. However, some expressway service Stationss do offer constitutions such as McDonalds for case. Motorway eating houses have proven vastly popular, particularly for people going long distances on major main roads. Rail and ferry catering Railway riders normally have limited or no catering amenities onboard. Costss will doubtless be high and the scope of points available for ingestion would be limited due to the deficiency of infinite on board. Ferries on the other manus are much larger and have a batch more infinite to comfortably sit frequenters. A figure of dining countries can be provided onboard, nevertheless coffeehouse and bite bars are still the most executable. In-flight catering Space on an aircraft is even more limited, so repasts are normally reduced to two sorts of dishes on rider planes. AirMalta for case has for the past several old ages licensed Corinthia Hotels International as their official supplier of in-flight nutrient. Food parts are frequently little and specially packed to protect the nutrient from force per unit area buildup. The repasts are pre-heated and stored in little compartments in the kitchen country of the aircraft. First category circulars do sometimes hold the option to choose their ain repast, but these services are evidently reflected in the high menus. Task 2- Explain the interrelatedness between cordial reception, and travel and touristry administrations Hospitality administrations are some of the most of import service suppliers to the travel and touristry industry. Whether for leisure or for concern, people do pass a important sum of clip at their hotel, peculiarly if it is of a luxury position. Guests would intelligibly desire to harvest the benefits offered by their hotel, peculiarly for the premium monetary values paid. Package vacations The function of cordial reception in bundle vacations is really important. Hotels which are included in bundle vacations finally depend on the monetary value paid for the bundle. If person opts for a budget bundle, so one would non anticipate 5 star adjustment, but more realistically some signifier of 3 star or perchance 4 star adjustment. Popular vacation bundles are frequently aggregate purchased, so clients would profit from good hotel rates and air hose ticket monetary values. Hotels besides have particular understandings with single travel agents, offering particular rates to their companies in return for a guaranteed flow of clients from their terminal. Customers may choose for adjustment on room merely footing, bed and breakfast, half board, or more seldom, full board footing. Travel agent representatives on a regular basis check up on their clients at their hotel to guarantee that they are holding a pleasant clip. They besides discuss any jobs that they have been sing throughout the continuance of their stay, and acquire them sorted consequently. All inclusive bundles are besides available but do non offer clients the flexibleness of other bundles. Such bundles would include everything that is needed for the whole stay such as repasts, drinks, hotel, Tourss, and all other demands. Customers who opt for these bundles would normally pass most of their clip within the resort as most of their activities would be based at that place. Aviation The Airline industry s success depends really much on adjustment handiness. Airlines may lose out on concern if hotels are at full capacity. This is a serious job for air hoses winging to little finishs such as Malta, as there have been cases where all hotels on the island were to the full booked. Major air hoses must therefore analyse state of affairss sing bed handiness, and take flight times and yearss consequently. Cordial reception is besides present onboard air hoses in the signifier of catering, every bit good as kiping agreements. Budget air hoses offer nutrient and drinks at excess cost, whilst higher category air hoses frequently offer all inclusive nutrient and drinks, even to those paying for economic system seating. Some extremist epicurean air hoses even have lean backing seats which turn into beds, every bit good as Ag service dining and a centrally located saloon, where clients can take what to eat and imbibe. Business travel Business people specifically opt for hotels which are equipped with the necessary installations to work comfortably. They search for hotels with concern Centres, Wifi or overseas telegram cyberspace entree, meeting suites and conference countries, every bit good as other services such as 24 hr wash and dry cleansing. They may besides seek to suit in some clip for leisure, peculiarly in between meetings, where they would either spend clip by the pool, at the watering place, or out and about. However, due to the nature of concern travel this is non ever possible. The same goes for providing constitutions. Business people opt for some of the best eating houses in order to affect concern associates or clients. They make usage of the money supplied to them by their companies, so they can afford to take high category eating houses to attach to their luxury adjustment. Globalization has brought about a turning demand for concern related travel, and this will doubtless turn even further as finishs become more affiliated. Budget air hoses have besides made concern travel a batch more low-cost to companies, nevertheless, some companies believe that winging concern category would maintain their repute integral. Business category was basically developed for concern people who required infinite to work. Emerging finishs such as India and China are going hot spots for concern travel, and international companies from around the universe are interested in puting up subdivisions at that place. Their industries are turning faster than any other, and certain companies do non wish to lose out on any chances to increase their market portion and profitableness. Conferences and exhibitions Conferences and exhibitions are besides important for national and international travel and touristry industries. For case, between the 29th of August and the 4th of September, Malta welcomed its largest of all time conference, hosting 5000 delegates who were invited to the annual Oriflame conference, each of which stayed at 4 and 5 star hotels. In entire, 8 million Euros were injected into the local economic system, largely through adjustment costs. Outside caterers, chiefly from hotels, were chosen to fix nutrient for all of the delegates. Conference attendants are frequently hosted at the hotel at which the event is taking topographic point. Exhibitions offer consumers the possibility to see merchandises or services before buying them. The International Tourism Bourse ( ITB ) is an international exhibition which attracts exhibitioners from around the universe. Companies, administrations and NTOs showcase their new offerings and constructs to other people from the field. Such events attract 1000s of people from around the universe, profiting legion hotels in the events margin. Visitor attractive forces A visitant attractive force is anything which gets people speaking or that is of involvement to visitants, tourers and others. Attractions may take the signifier of manmade creative activities such as museums and subject Parkss, or natural attractive forces such as natural Parkss. On the other manus, some sites happen to be of involvement to people merely because of the activities taking topographic point at that place, and non because the existent topographic point hosting the event is of any involvement. Subject Parkss are perchance the most popular visitant attractive forces, jointly seeing 1000000s of visitants on a annual footing. Disneyland happens to be one of the universe s most popular flagship attractive forces, and can be found in the United States, France, Japan and China. Most theme Parkss house their ain eating houses and coffeehouse, where households can bask a repast and so acquire back to holding merriment. However, Disneyland Paris goes a few stairss farther by holding two hotels at the resort, which frequently feature in bundle vacations and are vastly popular. Task3- Describe integrating within the cordial reception industry Integration foremost gained popularity in the 1900 s, when concerns focused on making economic systems of graduated table, through which they were able to profit from lower operating costs. When companies provide their ain merchandises or services through in-house attempts, outsourcing is no longer required, hence salvaging the company money in the long tally. Through such integrating companies are besides able to increase their planetary presence and increase their market portion. Vertical integrating Vertical integrating is a procedure through which a company buys another company in the distribution concatenation, or enters a amalgamation understanding. This is chiefly done to maximize profitableness and benefit from lower operating costs. It is traditionally characterised by forward, backwards and sidelong integrating. One of the most followed and good documented episodes of perpendicular integrating was that of the Carnegie Steel fabricating company in the United States. It had complete control over the distribution concatenation including the Fe mines, steel Millss, railwaies, coal mines and the ovens required to organize the steel. The company placed economic systems of graduated table at the top of its docket, and even focused on holding people trained internally instead than using foreigners. Barriers to entry will develop, restricting competition in the market place. Companies may derive control of providers such as adjustment and transit suppliers to farther bound possible competition. If monopolistic behavior develops through broad graduated table integrating, authorities bureaus will interfere and put limitations because competition is cardinal for bettering quality in the services industry. Forward perpendicular integrating is a procedure through which a company merges with another company farther along in the distribution concatenation. For case, a hotel concatenation may make up ones mind to purchase its ain travel bureau or circuit operator in order to spread out into other markets. Hotels frequently strike understandings with travel agents and circuit operators, supplying particular room rates and offers for clients brought to them. Backward Vertical integrating is when a company purchases one of its providers and makes proper usage of its inputs for the benefit of the administration. A circuit operator may buy an air hose company or a hotel, as they are both providers of services which are important to the bundle industry. TUI AG has over the class of its development created the TUI Hotels and Resorts trade name, which owns and runs hotel trade names such as Robinson, Magic life, Iberotel, Grecotel, Riu and Grupotel, numbering 243 hotels around the universe. It has late embarked on an wholly new undertaking for the company, the first TUI branded hotel. The TUI Hotel Kaluga has 136 luxury suites and 74 flats, and is targeted specifically at concern people. Lateral integrating on the other manus requires the amalgamation of two administrations which may hold indirectly related merchandises and services ; nevertheless they need non be in direct competition with one another. The three types of perpendicular integrating give a sum-up of possible schemes which may be adopted as companies frequently make usage of different discrepancies of these schemes. Horizontal integrating Horizontal integrating is of import for companies which want to spread out their client base, benefit from economic systems of graduated table and above all, maximise profitableness. It occurs when a company purchases or merges with a company at the same phase of the distribution concatenation. A fitting illustration of this occurred last August when Hilton hotels international purchased a hotel at the Walt Disney World Resort for ˆ92,202,465. Toyota, Peugeot and Citroen late formed a pool for the production of their 107, C1 and Aygo cars, which are all based on the same shared platform, engines and hardware. The three companies shared their cognition and resources to accomplish a common end. Although this illustration is non straight related to the cordial reception industry, these autos have helped auto rental companies increase their gross revenues by a important border in Europe because tourers find them low-cost to lease, environmentally friendly, dependable, and merriment to drive. Horizontal integrating can besides be complementary in nature as opposed to competitory. Airlines frequently work closely with hotel ironss, harvesting some of the benefits which are offered by amalgamations without the existent hazards. Such relationships are seeable in the pick of air hoses made by hotels for their air hose stat mis schemes. Airlines gather informations from hotels to seek and do their flight agendas correspond with adjustment handiness ; nevertheless this is non ever possible due to the dynamism and complexness of the cordial reception and travel industries. To avoid letdown, the bulk of tourers book their adjustment beforehand to guarantee that they have their suites available upon reaching. Deductions of integrating on the cordial reception sector. Branding A Brand name entirely may raise up certain feelings or emotions related to personal experiences with the trade name. As with all industries, the success of the touristry industry depends on the stigmatization techniques adopted by all the key participants, and how good they can present their messages to aim markets. It is important that clients are able to tie in themselves with such trade names, and frailty versa. Trade names frequently aim to do their loyal clients see their merchandises or services as an extension of their personality or character. For case, if a group of concern people check in to the Sheraton Pine Cliffs hotel in the Algarve, they would anticipate the same check-in processs, concern comfortss and munificent luxuries as any other Sheraton hotel. Anything different for the money paid would frequently be unacceptable. Merely like Sheraton, Westin besides belongs to Starwood Hotels and Resorts. It is an upscale trade name which caters for all kinds of clients who are after epicurean adjustment. It has top category comfortss for concern people, and all the luxuries that twosomes would anticipate for that romantic pickup. It besides happens to be the most household oriented trade name within the Starwood group, offering installations where kids can play under changeless supervising. The life squad at the Westin Dragonara Resort in Malta frequently organises activities during the twenty-four hours, such as Sony drama station tourneies for adolescents, or synergistic games and other merriment activities for kids. Westin hotels around the universe besides have a kids s check-in point at response to do them experience every bit of import as their accompanying grownups. All of the above constructs are an built-in portion of the company s stigmatization scheme. Coupled with other factors, kids may utilize their positive experiences to act upon their parents into sing that same hotel clip and clip once more. Market control and integrating between larger administrations Some of the UK s major circuit operators have purchased hotels overseas to increase their planetary presence and profitableness. By making so, they are able to command their hotel rates to their advantage, perchance conveying more low-cost bundles to their clients whilst increasing their gross revenues. Although this sort of activity is good to the company, it can be damaging to smaller companies in the industry. Integration between big administrations doubtless poses a menace to smaller administrations, and it is inevitable that employees and their households will endure as the larger administrations take over. Although frequently unfortunate, travel and touristry basically depends on the endurance of the fittest, the companies which are able to offer the best balance between quality, measure and value for money. In certain cases, the growing of the Internet is restricting the potency of forward integrating, peculiarly when it comes to vacation bundles. It has thrown some travel agents out of concern, as they did non hold the necessary financess to switch their physical operations to practical platforms. The morning of dynamic packaging was besides a major menace to these companies, so much so that UK circuit operators are in the procedure of shuting down retail mercantile establishments to concentrate more on cyberspace merchandising. Although possible clients will profit from lower costs over the cyberspace, this can present a grave menace to society as 1000s of people may endure from unemployment. Direct merchandising over the cyberspace is widely employed by hotels that have their ain online booking systems. This makes the reserves process a batch simpler, cheaper, and less clip devouring for possible invitees, every bit good as for hotels. However, a reserves squad is still required for those engagements which are made straight with the hotel over the phone or at the forepart desk. Some people feel more comfy doing physical payments because they may non wish to supply their personal inside informations over the cyberspace. Or they may merely bask the human interaction. Increased globalization After a company expands successfully in its finish of beginning, abroad markets are frequently following in line. Globalization is the consequence of a aggregation of enlargements, which can be analysed from an internal and external position. A company will confront internal globalization whereby its employees from around the universe will develop relationships with one another. External globalization is when squad members interact with clients from all over the universe. Social networking web sites besides allow for such communicating to happen. Companies frequently create their ain histories on web sites such as Facebook and Twitter, through which squad members and loyal clients from around the universe can fall in in and prosecute in treatments. Globalization has besides made manner for a drastic decrease in trade barriers, peculiarly within the European Union. EU states frequently benefit from lower priced merchandises and services when trade occurs within the Euro zone. This benefits adjustment and providing suppliers to a great extent, peculiarly when buying in majority. Starwood Hotels and Resorts Worldwide Starwood Hotels and Resorts Worldwide is doubtless one of the most powerful international hotel and leisure ironss. It has had enormous success through its integrating undertakings over the last old ages. In the twelvemonth 2005 it acquired the Le Meridien trade name and its full portfolio, which amounted to 130 hotels and resorts internationally. This acquisition has increased Starwood s client base to a great extent with extremist smart belongingss in Africa, Europe, the Middle East every bit good as the Asian Pacific, and many more to come. Starwood s preferable invitee programme has besides benefitted Le Meridien s loyal invitees as they have entree to over 700 finishs as a consequence of the coup detat. Mr. Steven J. Heyer, who at the clip occupied the place of CEO at Starwood, believed that the acquisition of Le Meridien was a really exciting development for the Starwood trade name. Le Meridien hotels are located in finishs where Starwood had small to no presence prior to the coup detat. The Le Meridien trade name provided the company with another exciting undertaking to attach to their recent Aloft hotel trade name. Since Starwood s coup detat, The Le Meridien trade name has been come oning steadily with widespread betterments in grosss and growing. Le Meridien Balluta in Malta happens to be one of Malta s top five 5 stars belongingss, and it is steadily working its manner up. It began operations in the twelvemonth 2004, merely one twelvemonth prior to the trade name s coup detat by Starwood. Impacts of integrating Economies of graduated table and market portion Operating costs can be reduced significantly when companies integrate. If a circuit operator takes over a hotel, the cost associated with investing would be high, nevertheless the benefits reaped by offering a wider assortment of merchandises or services can be seen instantly. In this instance, integrating would let the circuit operator to cut down its dependence on other adjustment suppliers as most operations can be taken attention of within company parametric quantities. The more reputable hotels the circuit operator is willing and able to put in, the more good it will be from an operating cost base point. The circuit operator may take down the costs of its bundles and pass the benefits onto the consumers. With the right schemes in topographic point, market portion will increase and profitableness will be maximised. Through horizontal integrating, companies can widen their bing client base, whilst through perpendicular integrating companies can come in new markets and pull an wholly different client base. Standardization Standardization is a complex and clip devouring procedure, peculiarly in an industry which involves so many variables. Automated procedures can most surely be standardised, nevertheless it is a batch more hard to standardize the human component, albeit non being impossible. For case, McDonald s eating houses throughout the universe have had their procedures standardised. Whichever finish one visits, the processs which employees follow are close indistinguishable, and the same goes for the nutrient. The company tends to be extremely efficient, clip oriented, predictable and commanding over its procedures and work force. Standardization can be possible in hotels, nevertheless it is limited. The manner in which a telephone operator answers the phone can be standardised, and so can the manner in which invitees are greeted upon check-in. Variability will ever be an issue, as the different sections within a company are run by different forces, who each have their ain criterions and ways of covering with state of affairss. Quality It is non guaranteed that quality will better through integrating. As ever, it depends on how variable the human component is. If a hotel is taken over by another, it does non intend that the new proprietor will hold a better attack towards bettering quality. Employees may non acquire along with their new foremans because they believe that the attack being adopted towards bettering quality is non executable or practical, hence doing the hazard of mistake greater. It is hence important that the direction of any administration does non choose for a rigorous top-down bureaucratism. Management must listen to what employees have to state because they are the people who are in changeless contact with clients, and they know precisely what clients are anticipating from the administration. Hotels within the same hotel concatenation besides face such jobs, even though it is at the top of their docket to offer quality services throughout. General decision Catering and adjustment suppliers keep the travel and touristry industry alive as few people would hold the inducement to go if there are non any nice topographic points to eat and kip. There are hotels and eating houses which cater for different mark markets. Business people may necessitate a concern oriented hotel which offers all of the necessary comfortss for concern communications, whilst a household may choose for a resort puting where they can pass most of their clip relaxing by the pool. The different hotel star evaluations provide possible invitees with an array of adjustment suppliers to accommodate their pockets. If they do non wish to remain at a hotel, they may so choose for a motel whish offers standard adjustment at really low rates, a invitee house which offers a homely scene and place cooked repasts, or a Lodge, where invitees can loosen up and profit from the fresh outdoor air. The cordial reception industry must work hand-in-hand with the travel and touristry industry to supply tourers with a seamless experience, where all constituents must be carefully planned to offer the best value for money. It is when such coactions fail that people will take other administrations, or worse, other finishs. It is hence in the best involvement of any administration that communicating between join forcesing parties is clear and precise. Integration is inevitable for some administrations which aim to spread out their concerns. It gives them control over suppliers at different or the same phases of the distribution concatenation, with the purpose of increasing market portion, cut downing operating costs, bettering quality and maximizing profitableness. Companies integrate as it is frequently less hazardous than get downing up new companies, as most systems would already be in topographic point. It will besides take clip for people to develop a sense of trust for a company that has merely started up.

The History of Algebra

The History of Algebra Various derivations of the word algebra, which is of Arabian origin, have been given by different writers. The first mention of the word is to be found in the title of a work by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi (Hovarezmi), who flourished about the beginning of the 9th century. The full title is ilm al-jebr wal-muqabala, which contains the ideas of restitution and comparison, or opposition and comparison, or resolution and equation, jebr being derived from the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqabala, from gabala, to make equal. (The root jabara is also met with in the word algebrista, which means a bone-setter, and is still in common use in Spain.) The same derivation is given by Lucas Paciolus (Luca Pacioli), who reproduces the phrase in the transliterated form alghebra e almucabala, and ascribes the invention of the art to the Arabians. Other writers have derived the word from the Arabic particle al (the definite article), and gerber, meaning man. Since, however, Geber happened to be the name of a celebrated Moorish philosopher who flourished in about the 11th or 12th century, it has been supposed that he was the founder of algebra, which has since perpetuated his name. The evidence of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) on this point is interesting, but he gives no authority for his singular statements. In the preface to his Arithmeticae libri duo et totidem Algebrae (1560) he says: The name Algebra is Syriac, signifying the art or doctrine of an excellent man. For Geber, in Syriac, is a name applied to men, and is sometimes a term of honour, as master or doctor among us. There was a certain learned mathematician who sent his algebra, written in the Syriac language, to Alexander the Great, and he named it almucabala, that is, the book of dark or mysterious things, which others would rather call the doctrine of algebra. To this day the same book is in great estimation among the learned in the oriental nations, and by the Indians, who cultivate this art, it is called aljabra and alboret; though the name of the author himself is not known. The uncertain authority of these statements, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, have caused philologists to accept the derivation from al and jabara. Robert Recorde in his Whetstone of Witte (1557) uses the variant algeber, while John Dee (1527-1608) affirms that algiebar, and not algebra, is the correct form, and appeals to the authority of the Arabian Avicenna. Although the term algebra is now in universal use, various other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians during the Renaissance. Thus we find Paciolus calling it lArte Magiore; ditta dal vulgo la Regula de la Cosa over Alghebra e Almucabala. The name larte magiore, the greater art, is designed to distinguish it from larte minore, the lesser art, a term which he applied to the modern arithmetic. His second variant, la regula de la cosa, the rule of the thing or unknown quantity, appears to have been in common use in Italy, and the word cosa was preserved for several centuries in the forms coss or algebra, cossic or algebraic, cossist or algebraist, c. Other Italian writers termed it the Regula rei et census, the rule of the thing and the product, or the root and the square. The principle underlying this expression is probably to be found in the fact that it measured the limits of their attainments in algebra, for they were unable to solve equations of a higher degree than the quadratic or square. Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Specious Arithmetic, on account of the species of the quantities involved, which he represented symbolically by the various letters of the alphabet. Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term Universal Arithmetic, since it is concerned with the doctrine of operations, not affected on numbers, but on general symbols. Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appellations, European mathematicians have adhered to the older name, by which the subject is now universally known. Continued on page two.   This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. It is difficult to assign the invention of any art or science definitely to any particular age or race. The few fragmentary records, which have come down to us from past civilizations, must not be regarded as representing the totality of their knowledge, and the omission of a science or art does not necessarily imply that the science or art was unknown. It was formerly the custom to assign the invention of algebra to the Greeks, but since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus by Eisenlohr this view has changed, for in this work there are distinct signs of an algebraic analysis. The particular problem-a heap (hau) and its seventh makes 19-is solved as we should now solve a simple equation; but Ahmes varies his methods in other similar problems. This discovery carries the invention of algebra back to about 1700 B.C., if not earlier. It is probable that the algebra of the Egyptians was of a most rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should expect to find traces of it in the works of the Greek aeometers. of whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.) was the first. Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the number of the writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic analysis from their geometrical theorems and problems have been fruitless, and it is generally conceded that their analysis was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra. The first extant work which approaches to a treatise on algebra is by Diophantus (q.v.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who flourished about A.D. 350. The original, which consisted of a preface and thirteen books, is now lost, but we have a Latin translation of the first six books and a fragment of another on polygonal numbers by Xylander of Augsburg (1575), and Latin and Greek translations by Gaspar Bachet de Merizac (1621-1670). Other editions have been published, of wh ich we may mention Pierre Fermats (1670), T. L. Heaths (1885) and P. Tannerys (1893-1895). In the preface to this work, which is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains his notation, naming the square, cube and fourth powers, dynamis, cubus, dynamodinimus, and so on, according to the sum in the indices. The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, and in solutions he marks it by the final s; he explains the generation of powers, the rules for multiplication and division of simple quantities, but he does not treat of the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of compound quantities. He then proceeds to discuss various artifices for the simplification of equations, giving methods which are still in common use. In the body of the work he displays considerable ingenuity in reducing his problems to simple equations, which admit either of direct solution, or fall into the class known as indeterminate equations. This latter class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known as Diophantine problems, and the methods of resolving them as the Diophantine analysis (see EQUATION, Indeterminate.) It is difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus arose spontaneously in a period of general stagnation. It is more than likely that he was indebted to earlier writers, whom he omits to mention, and whose works are now lost; nevertheless, but for this work, we should be led to assume that algebra was almost, if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks. The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief civilized power in Europe, failed to set store on their literary and scientific treasures; mathematics was all but neglected; and beyond a few improvements in arithmetical computations, there are no material advances to be recorded. In the chronological development of our subject we have now to turn to the Orient. Investigation of the writings of Indian mathematicians has exhibited a fundamental distinction between the Greek and Indian mind, the former being pre-eminently geometrical and speculative, the latter arithmetical and mainly practical. We find that geometry was neglected except in so far as it was of service to astronomy; trigonometry was advanced, and algebra improved far beyond the attainments of Diophantus. Continued on page three.   This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The fame of this astronomer and mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabhattiyam, the third chapter of which is devoted to mathematics. Ganessa, an eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara, quotes this work and makes separate mention of the cuttaca (pulveriser), a device for effecting the solution of indeterminate equations. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the earliest modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that the treatise of Aryabhatta extended to determinate quadratic equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and probably of the second. An astronomical work, called the Surya-siddhanta (knowledge of the Sun), of uncertain authorship and probably belonging to the 4th or 5th century, was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourish ed about a century later. It is of great interest to the historical student, for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon Indian mathematics at a period prior to Aryabhatta. After an interval of about a century, during which mathematics attained its highest level, there flourished Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598), whose work entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (The revised system of Brahma) contains several chapters devoted to mathematics. Of other Indian writers mention may be made of Cridhara, the author of a Ganita-sara (Quintessence of Calculation), and Padmanabha, the author of an algebra. A period of mathematical stagnation then appears to have possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries, for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little in advance of Brahmagupta. We refer to Bhaskara Acarya, whose work the Siddhanta-ciromani (Diadem of anastronomical System), written in 1150, contains two important chapters, the Lilavati (the beautiful [science or art]) and Viga-ganita (root-extraction), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra. English translations of the mathematical chapters of the Brahma-siddhanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke (1817), and of the Surya-siddhanta by E. Burgess, with annotations by W. D. Whitney (1860), may be consulted for details. The question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much discussion. There is no doubt that there was a constant traffic between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an exchange of produce would be accompanied by a transference of ideas. Moritz Cantor suspects the influence of Diophantine methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeterminate equations, where certain technical terms are, in all probability, of Greek origin. However this may be, it is certain that the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus. The deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied; subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend; multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, the product) after the factom; division, by placing the divisor under the dividend; and square root, by inserting ka (an abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the quantity. The unknown was ca lled yavattavat, and if there were several, the first took this appellation, and the others were designated by the names of colours; for instance, x was denoted by ya and y by ka (from kalaka, black). Continued on page four. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be found in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence of two roots of a quadratic equation, but the negative roots were considered to be inadequate, since no interpretation could be found for them. It is also supposed that they anticipated discoveries of the solutions of higher equations. Great advances were made in the study of indeterminate equations, a branch of analysis in which Diophantus excelled. But whereas Diophantus aimed at obtaining a single solution, the Hindus strove for a general method by which any indeterminate problem could be resolved. In this they were completely successful, for they obtained general solutions for the equations ax( or -)byc, xyaxbyc (since rediscovered by Leonhard Euler) and cy2ax2b. A particular case of the last equation, namely, y2ax21, sorely taxed the resources of modern algebraists. It was proposed by Pierre de Fermat to Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematician s. John Wallis and Lord Brounker jointly obtained a tedious solution which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John Pell in his Algebra. A solution was also given by Fermat in his Relation. Although Pell had nothing to do with the solution, posterity has termed the equation Pells Equation, or Problem, when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, in recognition of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans. Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the Hindus passed from number to magnitude and vice versa. Although this transition from the discontinuous to continuous is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the development of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we define algebra as the application of arithmetical operations to both rational and irrational numbers or magnitudes, then the Brahmans are the real inventors of algebra. The integration of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual powers of a hitherto obscure race. The Arabs became the custodians of Indian and Greek science, whilst Europe was rent by internal dissensions. Under the rule of the Abbasids, Bagdad became the centre of scientific thought; physicians and astronomers from India and Syria flocked to their court; Greek and Indian manuscripts were translated (a work commenced by the Caliph Mamun (813-833) and ably continued by his successors); and in about a century the Arabs were placed in possession of the vast stores of Greek and Indian learning. Euclids Elements were first translated in the reign of Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), and revised by the order of Mamun. But these translations were regarded as imperfect, and it remained for Tobit ben Korra (836-901) to produce a satisfactory edition. Ptolemys Almagest, the works of Apolloniu s, Archimedes, Diophantus and portions of the Brahmasiddhanta, were also translated. The first notable Arabian mathematician was Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, who flourished in the reign of Mamun. His treatise on algebra and arithmetic (the latter part of which is only extant in the form of a Latin translation, discovered in 1857) contains nothing that was unknown to the Greeks and Hindus; it exhibits methods allied to those of both races, with the Greek element predominating. The part devoted to algebra has the title al-jeur walmuqabala, and the arithmetic begins with Spoken has Algoritmi, the name Khwarizmi or Hovarezmi having passed into the word Algoritmi, which has been further transformed into the more modern words algorism and algorithm, signifying a method of computing. Continued on page five. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. Tobit ben Korra (836-901), born at Harran in Mesopotamia, an accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer, rendered conspicuous service by his translations of various Greek authors. His investigation of the properties of amicable numbers (q.v.) and of the problem of trisecting an angle, are of importance. The Arabians more closely resembled the Hindus than the Greeks in the choice of studies; their philosophers blended speculative dissertations with the more progressive study of medicine; their mathematicians neglected the subtleties of the conic sections and Diophantine analysis, and applied themselves more particularly to perfect the system of numerals (see NUMERAL), arithmetic and astronomy (q.v..) It thus came about that while some progress was made in algebra, the talents of the race were bestowed on astronomy and trigonometry (q.v..) Fahri des al Karbi, who flourished about the beginning of the 11th century, is the author of the most important Arabian work on algebra. He follows the methods of Diophantus; his work on indeterminate equations has no resemblance to the Indian methods, and contains nothing that cannot be gathered from Diophantus. He solved quadratic equations both geometrically and algebraically, and also equations of the form x2naxnb0; he also proved certain relations between the sum of the first n natural numbers, and the sums of their squares and cubes. Cubic equations were solved geometrically by determining the intersections of conic sections. Archimedes problem of dividing a sphere by a plane into two segments having a prescribed ratio, was first expressed as a cubic equation by Al Mahani, and the first solution was given by Abu Gafar al Hazin. The determination of the side of a regular heptagon which can be inscribed or circumscribed to a given circle was reduced to a more complicated equation which was first successfully resolved by Abul Gud. The method of solving equations geometrically was considerably developed by Omar Khayyam of Khorassan, who flourished in the 11th century. This author questioned the possibility of solving cubics by pure algebra, and biquadratics by geometry. His first contention was not disproved until the 15th century, but his second was disposed of by Abul Weta (940-908), who succeeded in solving the forms x4a and x4ax3b. Although the foundations of the geometrical resolution of cubic equations are to be ascribed to the Greeks (for Eutocius assigns to Menaechmus two methods of solving the equation x3a and x32a3), yet the subsequent development by the Arabs must be regarded as one of their most important achievements. The Greeks had succeeded in solving an isolated example; the Arabs accomplished the general solution of numerical equations. Considerable attention has been directed to the different styles in which the Arabian authors have treated their subject. Moritz Cantor has suggested that at one time there existed two schools, one in sympathy With the Greeks, the other with the Hindus; and that, although the writings of the latter were first studied, they were rapidly discarded for the more perspicuous Grecian methods, so that, among the later Arabian writers, the Indian methods were practically forgotten and their mathematics became essentially Greek in character. Turning to the Arabs in the West we find the same enlightened spirit; Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in Spain, was as much a centre of learning as Bagdad. The earliest known Spanish mathematician is Al Madshritti (d. 1007), whose fame rests on a dissertation on amicable numbers, and on the schools which were founded by his pupils at Cordoya, Dama and Granada. Gabir ben Allah of Sevilla, commonly called Geber, was a celebrated astronomer and apparently skilled in algebra, for it has been supposed that the word algebra is compounded from his name. When the Moorish empire began to wane the brilliant intellectual gifts which they had so abundantly nourished during three or four centuries became enfeebled, and after that period they failed to produce an author comparable with those of the 7th to the 11th centuries. Continued on page six. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document.

Geography and Economy in Modern History of China

Geography and Economy in Modern History of China Population: 1,379 Billion (2016 estimate)Capital: BeijingMajor Cities: Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenyang, Wuhan, Guangzhou, Chongqing, Harbin, ChengduArea: 3,705,407 square miles (9,596,961 sq km)Bordering Countries: FourteenCoastline: 9,010 miles (14,500 km)Highest Point: Mount Everest at 29,035 feet (8,850 m)Lowest Point: Turpan Pendi at -505 feet (-154 m) China is the third largest country in the world in terms of area but it is the worlds largest based on population. The country is a developing nation with a capitalist economy that is controlled politically by communist leadership. Chinese civilization began more than 5,000 years ago and the nation has played a crucial role in world history and is continuing to do so today. Chinas Modern History Chinese civilization originated on the North China Plain in about 1700 B.C.E with the Shang Dynasty. However, because Chinese historey  dates so far back, it is too long to include in its entirety in this overview. This article focuses on modern Chinese history beginning in the 1900s.   Modern Chinese history began in 1912 after the last Chinese emperor abdicated the throne and the country became a republic. After 1912 political and military instability was common in China and it was initially fought over by different warlords. Shortly thereafter, two political parties or movements began as a solution to the countrys problems. These were the Kuomintang, also called the Chinese National Party, and the Communist Party. Problems later began for China in 1931 when Japan seized Manchuria - an act that eventually began a war between the two nations in 1937. During the war, the Communist Party and the Kuomintang cooperated with each other to defeat Japan but later in 1945, a civil war between the Kuomintang and the communists broke out. This civil war killed more than 12 million people. Three years later the civil war ended with a win by the Communist Party and leader Mao Zedong, which then led to the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China in October 1949. During the early years of communist rule in China and the Peoples Republic of China, mass starvation, malnutrition and disease were common. In addition, there was an idea for a highly planned economy at this time and the rural population was divided into 50,000 communes, each of which was responsible for farming and running different industries and schools. In an effort to further jump-start Chinas industrialization and political change Chairman Mao began the Great Leap Forward initiative in 1958. The initiative failed however and between 1959 and 1961, famine and disease again spread throughout the country. Shortly thereafter in 1966, Chairman Mao began the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution which put local authorities on trial and attempted to change historic customs to give the Communist Party more power. In 1976, Chairman Mao died and Deng Xiaoping became Chinas leader. This led to economic liberalization but also a policy of government controlled capitalism and a still strict political regime. Today, China remains much the same, as every aspect of the country is heavily controlled by its government. Government of China Chinas government is a communist state with a unicameral legislative branch called the National Peoples Congress that is made up of 2,987 members from the municipal, regional and provincial level. There is also a judicial branch comprised of the Supreme Peoples Court, Local Peoples Courts, and Special Peoples Courts. China is divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities. National suffrage is 18 years of age and the main political party in China is the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). There are also smaller political parties in China, but all are controlled by the CCP. Economics and Industry in China Chinas economy has changed rapidly in recent decades. In the past, it was focused around a highly planned economic system with specialized communes and was closed to international trade and foreign relations. In the 1970s however, this began to change and today China is more economically tied to the worlds countries. In 2008, China was the worlds second largest economy. Today, Chinas economy is 43% agriculture, 25% industrial and 32% service related. Agriculture consists mainly of items like rice, wheat, potatoes, and tea. Industry is focused on raw mineral processing and the manufacturing of a wide variety of items. Geography and Climate of China China is located in Eastern Asia with its borders along several countries and the East China Sea, Korea Bay, the Yellow Sea, and the South China Sea. China is divided into three geographic regions: the mountains to the west, the various deserts and basins in the northeast and the low lying valleys and plains in the east. Most of China, however, consists of mountains and plateaus such as the Tibetan Plateau which leads into the Himalayan Mountains and Mount Everest. Because of its area and variations in topography, Chinas climate is also varied. In the south, it is tropical, while the east is temperate and the Tibetan Plateau is cold and arid. The northern deserts are also arid and the northeast is cold temperate. More Facts about China China instituted a One Child Policy in 1979 to control its growing populationThe majority of Chinese are non-denominational in religion, but 10% are BuddhistChinas population is expected to peak in 2026 at 1.4 billion. India will surpass China as the worlds most populous country in 2025. References Central Intelligence Agency. (6 April 2011). CIA - The World Factbook China. Retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html Infoplease.com. (n.d). China: History, Geography, Government, and Culture - Infoplease.com. Retrieved from: infoplease.com/ipa/A0107411.html United States Department of State. (October 2009). China (10/09). Retrieved from: state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm

Internal Memorandum of Law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Internal Memorandum of Law - Research Paper Example In order to file a case against the appeal to be filed by Debbie Evans and others, and to evaluate the opponent’s chances of success in this endeavor, the bigamy laws of Utah and other relevant legislation, as well as the decided case law, have to be examined. Debbie Evans wanted to marry a married man Aaron, with the consent of his wife, Barb Conway. They had applied for a marriage license, which was denied, and their plea in the trial court for being provided with such a license was rejected. They wanted to file an appeal in the upper court against this order, challenging the State’s power to interfere with their religious freedom and curtailing their right to polygamous marriage, which in accordance with their religious customs. The Mormon Church, openly promoted polygamy, until the year 1890, when it discontinued this practice. This volte-face was occasioned by Utah territory’s attempt to obtain statehood, and as Congress was insistent that the presence of anti-polygamy legislation was essential for admission into the Union. Since that point in time, the Mormon Church has desisted from actively supporting polygamy, amongst its members. In its efforts to prove that it is opposed to the practices of the 30,000 odd polygamists, who reside in various places in the West, the Mormon Church has resorted to the excommunication of its members who practice polygamy (Cosgrove - Mather, 2004). The state of Utah was witness to a polygamy case that attracted considerable attention. This was the case of State of Utah v. Green, wherein the defendant had maintained conjugal relations with several women and had thereby fathered 28 children (the State of Utah v. Thomas Arthur Green, 2004). His conviction by the lower court was upheld in the Supreme Court of Utah.