The Fundamentals of Cognitive Theories of Motivation

In this paper I will be aiming to cover the following areas. Firstly an overview of the fundamentals behind the cognitive theories of motivation, focusing on three main theories – Equity theory, Expectancy theory and Goal setting theory. Within these theory bases I will outline some of the developmental research that has been occurring, particularly those studies which have added empirical evidence to consolidate or expand on the basic theories. Secondly I will show some practical applications of these theories and evidence of how successful they have been or could be within an organisational environment. Finally a short comment on the adaptability of these models to an international context which has become a dominant feature of current literature in this increasing time of globalisation. The Cognitive Theories – An Overview Motivation can be visualised as the energising force that provides the impetus to make people act. More specifically it is â€Å"the individual internal process that energises directs and sustains behavior; the personal force that causes one to behave in a particular way† (Olsen, 1996, p.1). It is a fundamental concept for management to understand in learning to comprehend the way individuals will behave within a work place context. The cognitive theories of motivation aim to develop this understanding by focusing on the action and choices made in the motivation process. The focus is on the processes that occur within a person's mind, which influence their decision to act. (Wood, Wallace, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn (1998)) They rely on the assumption that behavior is purposeful and being undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal. This means that analysing the way choices are made between a variety of perceived outcomes can provide valuable insight into understanding why and how individuals choose to act. Equity theory relies on the way people make comparisons of both effort/return and with those around them, arguing that â€Å"when people gauge the fairness of their work outcomes in comparison with others, felt inequity is the motivating state of mind.† (Wood et al p 183) People resolve the felt inequities by working in such a way as to restore a sense of equity. The equity comparison occurs on two levels. The first is an individuals subjective assessment of whether the effort required will be commensurate with the benefits achieved. The second comparison occurs on a social level using those around as a yardstick against which to measure the individuals own sense of equity. Studies (Adams 1963 in Wood et al; Vecchio 1981) have generally supported this theory. A number of recent studies have sought to develop this principle further. By looking at the relationship between Equity theory and Interpersonal Attraction (Griffeth, Vecchio & Logan 1989) the authors were seeking to determine whether an attraction (or hostility) between the individual and their referent other had any influence upon the way they perceived and reacted to inequities. Their research, through a cross referencing technique of equity factors and attraction factors, provided results that indicated that attraction was indeed a contributing factor in the way individuals perceived equity balances. Although this does not undermine the essentials of equity theory, it adds the need to consider how and with who referent comparisons are made, as extra considerations when using the model. Meanwhile Barr & Conlon (1994) have been looking at the impact of distribution of feedback (both group and individuals) upon individual intentions. In particular for us, this study brings into question the applicability of equity theory assumptions within a group context. It proposes that, in a group setting, where other members would act as referents and rewards are distributed equally based on group performance, individuals would make equity comparisons within the group before deciding whether to persist. This was thought to override the impacts that feedback would otherwise cause. The results supported this contention. It showed that where the impact of individual feedback worked to create a perception of underpayment (due to perceived greater effort than other group members) that individuals were less interested in continuing the behavior that they believe led to the underpayment. Thus the social comparison effect was strong enough to override any of the individual positive feedback received. The study illustrates that social comparison within a group, where felt inequity is present, can have an impact on performance, and equity theory provides a good model for predicting this impact. Once a goal is selected, it allows people to channel their energies toward goal achievement. Four factors are stated as being important in goal setting to stimulate performance (Knowles 1991). These are The theory comes into use within the domain of â€Å"purposefully directed action.† Basically it states that the simplest and most direct motivational explanation of why some people perform better on work tasks than others is because they have different performance goals. (Ryan 1970 in Latham & Locke 1990). While much of the research has previously surrounded assigned goals, more emphasis is now being placed explicitly on self regulation. That is, the extent to which individuals will use goal setting, self monitoring and self rewarding/ self punishing behavior to attain a goal. (Latham & Locke 1990) This may especially be useful in breaking a larger goal down into more specific stepping stone goals. The implication for managers from the study is that the addition of skills in self regulation, acquired through experience, training or effort will lead to a greater likelihood of goals being achieved. Victor Vroom (1964, cited in Wood et al, 1998) developed one of the most widely used models for the understanding of the motivation process. It aims to predict the effort that will be expended by a person in completing a task. It argues that goals are chosen according to the relative attractiveness of the outcome. Diagrammatically it can be represented as follows The contention is that the motivation to work results from the product of Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence. (M=E x I x V) These elements are defined as follows: Expectancy is the probability of the extent to which the individual believes that a given level of achieved Work Performance will follow work effort. Instrumentality is the probability assigned that a given level of achieved performance will lead to various work outcomes. Valence is the value attached by the individual to those work outcomes. (Wood et al 1998) The implication of the model is that managers need to take into account the importance of the task being achieved along with the likelihood of the task being achieved and the likelihood that the task achievement will lead to a reward that has value to the individual. An individual requires all these factors to provide the impetus to exert the work effort. The fact that the theory does not attempt to specify the types of rewards that will motivate particular employees gives it a robustness that can be useful in application. Klein (1991) has been looking to clarify the relationship between goal setting and expectancy theories. Traditional theoretical approaches suggested viewing â€Å"expectancies and attractiveness as interacting to influence goal choice, with goals being the more direct determinants of effort† (Klein 1991 p 231). However there is also some competing evidence (Garland 1985) which contradicted this view contending that goal attributes affect expectancy theory constructs rather than resulting from them. Klein's study hence sought to expand evidence of how the expectancy theory constructs relate to goal choice, goal commitment and performance. His findings replicated those of Garland. The perceived explanation for this for this was that goals form a dual role of being targets to shoot for as well as standards for evaluating one performance. The research into combining the two theories is continuing, with much discussion currently surrounding â€Å"issues of causal ordering, measurement and the meanings of those measurements†. (Klein 1991 p 230) It appears that we have to wait on the world of academia to conduct more research before a widely accepted combination of the two models evolves. Practical Applications of the Cognitive Theories I now wish to bring in a number of specific examples of how and where these theories can and have been applied. Using Goal Setting to improve Safety Behavior. An application area of particular interest has been the use of goal setting techniques in improving safety performance On an anecdotal level I have seen this prove successful at my own work site at a steelworks at Western Port. I have seen much evidence of the positive use of goal setting techniques in an attempt to address the behavioral component of safe working practices. The focus upon systematic monitoring of safety related behavior and the provision of extensive feedback in conjunction with widely accepted goals on injury performance at a crew and organisational level has seen safety performance improve by over 50% in under two years (BHP Western Port Lost Time Injury Statistics). However it is difficult to read too much into the improvement given that a number of other initiatives are also being concurrently undertaken. A study into the UK construction industry (Marsh, Robertson, Phillips, Duff 1995) provides some empirical support for the premise that hard, specific goals with wide feedback of the results of ones behavior can lead to positive changes in safety behavior. This study found that by using quantitative measures of awareness and review sessions, that the intervention was having positive impacts, supporting my own anecdotal evidence. It supports the notion that clearly identified and well publicised safety targets can perform a crucial role in influencing safety behavior.

“Hedda Gabler” by Henrik Ibsen and the 19th Century Marriage Essay

Marriage in the 19th century was a social and economic matter, rather than a matter of personal relationship. The morals of the era, including family morals, are often associated with the Victorian England, where they revealed themselves in the most ultimate and form, yet especially this kind of attitude towards marriage dominated throughout Europe. The hypocrisy of the 19th century marriage, which caused countless lives to be broken and countless people to be unhappy, inspired many prominent writers like Oscar Wild, Gustave Flaubert, Honore de Balzac, Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky to refer to the motifs of protest against such state of things. Yet Henrik Ibsen is unique even in this society, he concentrates on the named subject in virtually every of his famous plays. One of those plays is â€Å"Hedda Gabler† first published in 1890. In this paper I will attempt to analyze Ibsen’s play in the context of the XIX century marriage, as well as the effect the play itself had on the social perception of family ties. I will argue that Ibsen managed to demonstrate how frustrating a hypocritical marriage can be and what a disastrous consequences it can cause not only for the married women, but for every person involved in the relation. I will further argue that the play can be viewed as Ibsen’s contribution to change of the entire social idea of the place of a woman in a family. Ibsen himself wrote that â€Å"The title of the play is Hedda Gabler. I intended to indicate thereby that as a personality she is to be regarded rather as her father’s daughter than as her husband’s wife. † Here Ibsen refers to the key problem of marriage in the 19th century. A woman has not played any independent role in it. She has always been viewed as â€Å"belonging to some man†, whether it is her father, brother or husband. Correspondingly, she had no opportunity to develop her own life and turned out to be a toy in the hands of men, being entirely dependent on them in social and economic aspects . In Hedda’s case she is either a daughter of a general, or a wife of an academic. But what is worse, she is dependent not only socially, but even mentally. She does not seem to be very clever, yet this does not mean that she lacks character. At her first approach Ibsen stresses her â€Å"pale and opaque† face and that â€Å"her steel-grey eyes express a cold, unruffled repose† . She is no way a foolish maiden dreaming only of lavish and careless life, throughout the play she often acts as a person of firm will, yet of a bad, or rather undeveloped character. This personal underdevelopment includes both narrow outlook and lack of moral principles. Perhaps she has been taught everything possible about morals, but a person of her type would rather act in contrary to imposed principles. Hedda really â€Å"belongs† to her husband and she is constantly reminded of that. This makes her desire for power even stronger, as she demonstrates more and more masculine features as the play develops. Unwilling to accept the feminine stereotypes of behavior Hedda plays with her father’s pistols perhaps more to shock and confuse her family, because handling arms is surely not a proper thing for a young lady. Yet the play with the pistols is still comparatively innocent. It appears that Hedda plays her own game with the society. Her relatives treat her as an obedient toy, so Hedda starts using them as toys in turn. This is a game of arrogance and indifference. Hedda makes snobbish remarks to the surrounding people, insults Aunt Julie’s new hat. The game gradually becomes more and more dangerous, and ends with two suicides. It seems that in this game Hedda makes little difference between a hat and Lovborg’s life. What the world has given to Hedda that Hedda returns to the world, and in case her dreams of luxurious existence are ruined, she can ruin the world in turn. The dependent position of a woman in marriage is naturally followed by another aspect of 19th century marriage – restriction of a woman. Ibsen embodied this social barrier in the repeated image of a glass door. The barrier is easy to be removed or broken, which she â€Å"nervously† walks to, but which she never opens, dying inside the claustrophobic space of the house. A question might arise here why Hedda at all married Jorgen Tesman whom she never loved and whom she openly neglected? The most obvious answer is that Hedda was in need of money, since her fathers only heritage was a good name. Tesman was an acceptable choice to her. He is considerably prosperous, his scientific prospects look perfectly, his name is noble, and, what is most important, his character is not very strong, so Hedda can easily control him. What is less obvious is Hedda’s desire to revenge Lovborg who failed to meet her hopes. Whether consciously or not, Hedda is making her way towards actual murder and suicide from the very beginning of the play. Although even in the 19th century the declared ground of marriage was love, Hedda cries to the Judge not to â€Å"use this sickening word† . She has crossed out her dreams of love and she does not want even to remember them. However, Hedda at least has an idea of love and passions, while her husband has none. As Hedda married Tesman of convenience, so Tesman did to Hedda. He is attracted both by her origin and by her beauty, while her death impresses him in a strange way: â€Å"Shot herself! Shot herself in the temple! Fancy that! †. This last phrase shows his real attitude. He never loved Hedda, and his primary concern was his own social position which he hoped to improve with a good marriage and an image of a beautiful wife. In fact there are no good or bad characters in the play, no victims and no executioners. Hedda is often blamed as a â€Å"snobbish, mean-spirited, small-minded, conservative, cold, bored, vicious. She’s sexually eager but terrified of sex; ambitious to be bohemian but frightened of scandal; a desperate romantic fantasist but unable to sustain any loving relationship with anyone, including herself† . This all can be true, but other characters are not better. The basic defect of the situation is that men and women surrounding Hedda are completely unable to see her as a personality outside of her social position. To the last they believe that Hedda would act in the â€Å"accepted way†, whether it is Tesman who views his wife as a pretty doll or Judge Brack who blackmails Hedda to enter into the family and probably force Hedda to a love affair believing that Hedda would act as a women in hopelessness, in other words obey . Brack is surprised with Hedda’s rebelliousness against the rule and asks: â€Å"Are you so unlike the generality of women as to have no turn for duties? † . But what Hedda does not want to hear about are duties. In this company even Lovborg causes little compassion. An miserable alcoholic who almost ruined his talent saved not due to his own effort, but due to a woman, he is unable even to die in the way Hedda has determined, and his suicide looks ridiculous. Being finally cornered by the circumstances Hedda decides to commit suicide herself. All of her dreams are ruined, she is now convinced that nobody loves her, her dreams of freedom, luxury and passions appeared to be mirages. She is unable to dominate even in the situation she has herself created. Hedda realizes that she is not a romantic hero but a simple wife of an academic, she is imprisoned and powerless. Her possible motherhood can only aggravate her despair, for a child shall be born from a man she does not love, and childbirth will make her even more helpless and dependent. Thus suicide looks as a natural resort for her. There is an another strong social allusion in the play. Lovborg and Mrs. Elvsted use to label Loveborg’s manuscript as a child, so burning a manuscript is a similar to child murder. When Hedda kills herself she kills her prospective children, as well as ruins her husband’s reputation thus doing two things he is afraid of. She commits suicide out of escapist intents but it is also a revenge to her husband, Brack, relatives and the whole world where such hypocritical marriage is possible. â€Å"Hedda Gabler† caused an ambiguous reaction of the public ever since premiere. The responses differed from calling it â€Å"Ibsen’s greatest play and the most interesting woman that he has created† to the devastating characteristic by George Bernard Show who emotionally observed: â€Å"What a marvel of stupidity and nonsense the author did produce in this play! It is incredible to think that only a score of years ago the audience sat seriously before its precious dullness†. American newspapers added oil to the flame of critique. The Philadelphian Ledger wrote after the American premiere â€Å"What a hopeless specimen of degeneracy is Hedda Gabler! A vicious, heartless, cowardly, unmoral, mischief-making vixen†. Yet I would emphasize a characteristic that remains actual until now. It has been provided by Justin Huntly McCarthy who wrote of the â€Å"he most interesting woman that he has created – she is compact with all the vices, she is instinct with all the virtues of womanhood† . The debate has not ceased over the years. Hedda became a favored character in the feminist movement, the play has been staged in numerous interpretations, including even lesbian one. However such public interest is the best proof of the fact that Ibsen hit the nail. â€Å"Hedda Gabler† is a play about fatal marriage. It starts with return of Hedda from her wedding journey and ends with the beginning of her final journey. However, Ibsen managed to generalize his subject and make his play a story of woman place in the society. 19th century marriage did left little space for female existence in the world dominated by males. That what the play is actually about. The motif of domination is revealed throughout the play and it is not always possible to say who, except for faulty customs dominates the situation. After all Tesman is unable to control even himself, and Hedda can not take the leading positions in the family due to social restrictions. Death is her protest. Perhaps it would not be too general to say that Ibsen wrote not only of physical death of his character but of a spiritual death of womanhood in the 19th century marriage. Works Cited: 1. Ibsen, Henrik. Hedda Gabler. Digireads. com, 2005. 2. Coontz, Stephanie. Marriage, a History: How Love Conquered Marriage. New York: Penguin Books, 2006. 3. Templeton, Joan. Ibsen’s Women. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 4. Eyre, Richard. â€Å"Femme fatale. Richard Eyre would like to apologise to Ibsen for doubting the greatness of Hedda Gabler†. The Guardian. 5 Mar. 2005. 21 April 2009 http://www. guardian. co. uk/stage/2005/mar/05/theatre 5. Sanders, Tracy. â€Å"Lecture Notes: Hedda Gabler – Fiend or Heroine†. Australian Catholic University, 2006. 21 April 2009 http://dlibrary. acu. edu. au/staffhome/trsanders/units/modern_drama/hedda_gabler. html

Apush Frq Outlines

Follow the directions on the opposite side of this assignment for FRQ Outlines. They are considered a TEST score, each question is worth 40 points (if there are 4 outlines, then it is a 160 point test). These outlines are due the first day of class. 1. Analyze the cultural and economic responses of TWO of the following groups to the Indians of North America before 1750. British French Spanish 2. Analyze the differences between the Spanish settlements in the Southwest and the English Colonies in New England in the 17th century in terms of TWO of the following: Politics Religion Economic Development 3. How did economic, geographic and social factors encourage the growth of slavery as an important part of the economy of the southern colonies between 1607 – 1775? 4. Compare the ways in which religion shaped the development of colonial society (to 1740) in TWO of the following regions: New England Chesapeake Middle Atlantic 5. Analyze the impact of the Atlantic Trade Routes established in the mid 1600’s on economic development in the British North American colonies. Consider the period 1650 – 1750. 6. Compare the ways in which TWO of the following reflected tensions in colonial society. Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) Pueblo Revolt (1680) Salem Witchcraft Trials (1692) Stono Rebellion (1739) 7. â€Å"Geography was the primary factor in shaping the development of the British colonies in North America. † Assess the validity of this statement. 8. Compare and contrast the culture and economy of the southern colonies with that of the New England Colonies. 9. Early encounters between American Indians and European colonists led to a variety of relationships among the different cultures. Analyze how the actions taken by BOTH American Indians and European colonists shaped those relationships in TWO of the following regions. Confine your answer to the 1600s. New EnglandSpanish Southwest ChesapeakeNew York and New France 10. In what ways did ideas and values held by Puritans influence the political, economic and social development of the New England colonies from 1630 through the 1660’s?

Transport and Logistics and E-Commerce Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Transport and Logistics and E-Commerce - Article Example the bridging up of the gap of geographical locations, enabling the comparison of stocks of a product at various retailers without having to visit them personally etc. An entire e-commerce business can exist virtually except it logistics and transport operations that have their own physical existence. These operations are often spread over a large span of geographical locations especially in the case of internationally acclaimed e-commerce transactions. It is in such similar situations that logistics becomes one of the most complex areas in an e-business. It is often a preferable notion that e-commerce web portals sublet their logistics and transport related operation to third party vendors. These vendors are required to assist a business with its supply chain, warehousing of goods, and consolidation of shipments, order fulfillment and reverse logistics. A very good example of efficient and reliable third party vendors is MRL Logistics. MRL Logistics specializes in its area of logistics and transport. This is very convenient for e-commerce websites as the purpose of their business needs the most of their focus. Spending too much attention on transport and logistics may result in neglecting of basic operations. E-Commerce and Logistics are both separate ever-growing domains that need separate evolution and refurbishment on their own end. Its best suited that the people specializing for this task and fully updated in it be approached for it as they specialize in it. MRL Logistics proudly distinguishes itself as a provider of exemplary, impeccable and cost effective Transport and Logistic needs of your business. If you want your logistic needs to be fulfilled perfectly, with time efficiency and security of your freight than what else could be better than getting it done from MRL Logistics? Dr S.J.C.M. Weijers, Dr D. Rouwenhorst, P. Huijbregts, Dr Ing S. Rozemeijer. Virtual Certainties about E-commerce, Transport and Logistic. Transport Research Centre. [Online]

Enterprise Architecture Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Enterprise Architecture Principles - Essay Example EA principles can be employed to precisely meet the needs of propagating enterprise transformation because they decrease the risk of being trapped in over-specification. Since EA principles offer guidance relating to efforts in architecture, their application ought to reflect a degree of consensus across the enterprise while at the same time embodying EA thinking. Therefore, application of EA principles needs to focus on not only the architecture-level issues but also restate and embody a set of business principles. Hence, application of these EA principles supports business principles, goals and strategic drivers since architects have to ensure the current definition of business principles and clarify areas of ambiguity.General principles like business continuity together with information principles such as treating information as asset seem to be essential principles in any company. Moreover, application principles like easy-to-use applications as well as technological principles t hat ensure changes are made based on requirements are critical to my company. All these principles embody every aspect of enterprise architecture since they consider crucial aspects in EA like business, application and technological principles. To a colleague, EA principles form the basic reference for all IT projects and initiatives since they propel governance of EA. Illustration of the usefulness of the EA principles relies on fact that principles form the foundation of EA because they embody rules and guidelines for the EA.

Case summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Case summary - Essay Example b) There was no distribution of current and/or accumulated earnings and profits. It can be determined that TWC did not redirect actual value to the petitioner by failing to charge its normal profit margin when receiving the reimbursement. a) Even though it is not the court’s mandate to construct and inform arguments for the parties involved, it could clearly determine that the timing of respondent’s constructive dividend adjustment is highly inappropriate and untimely. TWC was reimbursed for its work during 2004 and 2005 while the petitioners relocated into the home in 2005 (Johnson, 502). Therefore, if there was any constructive dividend that had been received then it would have been received, and therefore brought up in 2004 and/or 2005, not 2006. b) According Section 316(a) a dividend is any allocation of property that a firm makes to its stockholders from its earnings for the trading period and profits retained from the past periods (Johnson, 501). TWC did not make any profit or earnings from the transaction with Mr. Welle for the construction of his home. c) Ault and Arnold rightly argue that a constructive dividend usually arise when a corporation awards an economic benefit, specifically earnings and profits, on a stockholder without the expecting any payment or adequate consideration for the same (360). d) Not all business expenditure by an incorporated company that bestows some economic benefit on a stockholder can be termed as constructive dividend (Ault and Arnold, 358). Loftin & Woodward, 577 F.2d at 1215. e) Respondent did not elucidate how a the decision to forego profits, especially when the stockholder reimburses the corporation in full for its services, results in distribution of property which reduces the earnings and or profits as envisaged in section 316(a). The respondent also failed to substantiate the assertions with a credible case that sets precedent. f) Incidental or insignificant use of corporate property does not justify

None 1 Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

None 1 - Case Study Example In this paper, I develop a plan of how to analyze the intelligence problem that has been posed on Federal Republic of Ysla by The Sovereign Autocracy of Penin. Overview of the case The case involves a threat from SAP that is currently at war with the Federal Republic of Ysla. SAP has employed air reconnaissance, special operations, and air bombings against FRY as strategizes for a military attack. FRY’s topography, however, does not favor SAP military and only two targets are vulnerable to SAP’s amphibious offensive, and its naval attacks can only extent to 250 nautical miles. Analytical plan on how SAP military invasion will occur The analysis plan to determining how SAP will launch its attack follows a strategic approach that involves the intelligence cycle. The plan involves identification of the problem statement that defines the question, ‘How will SAP launch its attack on FRY?’ A planning stage then follows the problem statement and involves identific ation of key players to the entire process of protecting the FRY from SAP’s threat and the role of such players. The players in the case are experts in communication technology and communication process, informants, analysts and decision makers. The next stage in the analysis involves collection of data that relates to SAP’s potential mode of attack and explores such information as their potential targets, vulnerability of the targets, and potentials of the enemy’s arsenals to hit the targets from their different bases. The collected information is then analyzed; using i2 Analyst’s Notebook, compiled and communicated to relevant authority (IBM, n.d). The analysis process considers information such as appointment of a marine major to command the Third SAP Corps, SAP government’s directive to ban visits to its coast, and reports that SAP attacks will be made near Eyer. Further information indicates increased shipping near Banes, military movements to wards the northwest, and deployed crafts at Haba. Analyzing these pieces of information using i2 Analyst’s Notebook, whose functional features include visualization of intelligence information, analysis, and communication of the intelligence, identifies SAP’s focus on Port Eyer region with movements closer to the port and a base at Banes. The fact that only Mia and Eyer are vulnerable to SAP, that a marine has been appointed to head the Third SAP Corps, and that SAP’s naval initiatives can reach Eyer from Haba identifies marine, sub-marine or missile offensive as the primary mode of attack. This is because the two SAP bases, especially Haba, are strategic for accessing the FRY’s vulnerable ports through the sea (Clark, 2010; Folker, 2000). Analytical plan on where SAP military will occur The intelligence cycle is similarly applicable in analyzing the situation to determine where SAP attack will occur. The analysis begins by development of the problem stat ement in the form, ‘Where will the attack occur?’ Same parties are used in the intelligence process that identifies relevant information for analysis to identifying area of attack. i2 Analyst’s Notebook is used to locate different possible areas from which attacks can be launched and

Critical review of Narratives of Islamic Origins, The beginnings of Essay

Critical review of Narratives of Islamic Origins, The beginnings of Islamic Historical writing, by Fred M Donner. On Introducti - Essay Example Donner succinctly outlines some of the main problems with the early Islamic sources in his introduction: ‘Chronological discrepancies and absurdities abound, as do flat contradictions in the meaning of events, or even, less frequently, on their fundamental course. Many accounts present information that seems clearly anachronistic; others provide ample evidence of embellishment or outright invention to serve the purpose of political or religious apologetic’ (6). The late Albrecht Noth opened the debate which challenged the conventional, almost literal approach to the Islamic source material in 1973, arguing that many of the accounts were merely anecdotes and themes used by the authors in the contexts they thought appropriate. In this latest work, Donner has built heavily on the work of the latter. Wansbrough produced a more radical critique in 1977, which was developed by Crone and Cook. They asserted that many of the established ‘truths’ concerning the Proph et’s lifetime could not be taken for granted. ... Narratives of Islamic Origins, from the introduction to the conclusion, Donner makes clear that he is an opponent of Crone’s Hagarism, which he refers to as the radically ‘skeptical’ approach. Much of the introduction of devoted to this refutation. Even from this summary, it is clear that the history of early Islam is one of the most bitterly-contested fields in modern historiography, and due to the polarisation of the debate, it is unlikely to be smoothed over in the near future. With his contribution, Donner can scarcely have been hoping to categorically resolve any of the issues at stake. However, in a way somewhat similar to the work of Robert Hoyland, Donner is beginning to build a middle ground in the debate, in which the Islamic sources need not be rejected or passionately advocated, but can be included in a careful and scholarly analysis of the period. Donner’s Narratives of Islamic Origins is just that – a comprehensive and thoroughly schola rly analysis to a wide body of primary sources, which adds little new to the overarching debate, but does distil some important issues. We are concerned in this review with the introduction of the book, which offers a basic summary of Donner’s main argument, and the preoccupations which have motivated the study, and with chapter 5, entitled, ‘Themes of Prophecy’. The introduction focuses on the intellectual context of early Islam, and especially on the key issue of establishing the Quran as a text which existed in some form from the earliest period. This is obviously crucial to the way in which we view this document. Those who tended towards Crone’s view argue that the Quran is a later construction, put together from legendary sayings of the Prophet. It is held by this school to be a collection of sayings

Other Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Other - Assignment Example While buying the television, the seller will have spent on something else thereby boosting the local economy. Therefore, in the perspective of the observer of these events, the ill behavior of the man’s son or breaking of the television set has stimulated the economy; however, according to Bastiat, the entire understanding exposes a fallacy. Looking at the concept brewed in this case, breaking of the television reduces the man’s disposable income that he may not be able to purchase; for instance, a new shirt or commit to other luxuries. Nonetheless, the breakage of the television is helpful to others; for example, the seller or the person repairing the television. It should be noted that despite the breakage of the television set being helpful to others; it robs industries and reduces the spending on other goods and or services. Replacing an item that was already bought is regarded as the maintenance cost as opposed to buying new items or items that the owner has never had (Rockwell and Ludwig Von Mises Institute, 2008). ... in Making Financial Decisions The most significant means in decision making including financial decision-making are the application logical and systematic decision-making processes. Application of application logical and systematic processes helps in time value analysis since they provide systematic and planned analysis. Therefore, it is vital that health care organizations to deploy organizational approach that incorporates application logical and systematic processes in making vital financial decision (Skousen, 2009). Applying this concept will ensure that they never miss profound factors in their decision-making. Six steps and practices can help the health care organizations to curb their challenges in financial decision-making. Creating a constructive environment for financial decision making A constructive environment for decision-making incorporates the establishment of objective of such decision making process. In other words, it is vital that the management of such health car e organization to define the parameters the health organization could achieve with their desired financial decision. Additionally, the management must thereafter agree on a working process to be deployed and this will call for the incorporation of the significant stakeholders in such decision-makings. Generating applicable and relevant alternatives This process shall provide the decision makers with more options to choose from towards comprehensive financial decisions. Generation of alternatives allows the management or the decision makers to have numerous ways of solving financial challenges. Therefore, unreasonable alternatives will only worsen the problem. Finally, generating alternatives will help organizations of ideas. Exploration of the alternatives This process ensures that only

Paper Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Paper Critique - Essay Example Since Chondrus crispus is dominant in the low tidal zone, Lubchenco looked at the effect of Chondrus crispus on the lower limit of F. vesiculosus and F. distichus zone: Chondrus crispus was removed from a section of the lower tidal zone at each site, and recolonization of the section was monitored regularly. (This involved either scrapping the erect part of Chondrus crispus off the rocks to mimic natural removal of Chondrus thallus during a winter storm, or removing even the Chondrus crust to mimic the rarely occurring complete Chondrus destruction by limpet grazing or ice scouring). I believe that in such a complex system as a natural ecosystem, it is hard to point to a single factor (biotic or abiotic) as the main determinant of a species specialization to a particular environment. In my opinion the author performed this part of the study in a rather biased way and looked solely at the effect of Chondrus crispus on the lower limits of fucoid species zone. I would suggest locating other environments with the same zonation pattern and comparing them to identify the range of parameters that are common among them. Another option might be examining the effect of the best three candidate biotic and abiotic factors in laboratory simulation conditions and looking whether these influence significantly the Fucus capacity to colonize the low tidal zone. 4. The author succeeded partially in answering and discussing the questions posed in the study. Her data confirmed that biotic factors do play a role in zonation pattern formation, along with previously identified abiotic factors. These data also demonstrated that inter-species competition and herbivory are the two biotic factors affecting species zonation patterns, with competition determining species survival, and herbivory affecting species abundance. Lubchenco discussed extensively the niche width-related question and concluded that this is

Explain the Influence of Management Style on the Nature of the Employment Relationship Essay Example for Free

Explain the Influence of Management Style on the Nature of the Employment Relationship Essay It always a great deal for management to perform effectively in an organization, it is because they are the ones that are always look into by the people within the company. With the policies and guidelines that they give for the employees in order for them to achieve their goal effectively is the main reflection on the management style they implement and want to follow in the company. That is why in order for a company to succeed, management is always one of the main key, because it provides a better deal on addressing the main issue of relationship as well as policies. What is important for the management is that, no matter what and how they provide their management style in an organization, it should have positive output for both its people and also the stakeholders. Or always find a way to â€Å"strike the balance† between the two, because if people in the organization will not be given the right attention, it will be hard for company to survive, since these people are called as the â€Å"front liners† and the reflection of these performance will surely be reflected on the service they provide for the customer. On the other hand for the stakeholders, they maybe people that do not want to know more about how people or staff deals with their work, but more focus on the stability of the company, or simply â€Å"bottom line†. But, in order to achieve this there should be leader that must stand in front which will lead all these into reality. They say that a good leader is a good coach as well as moderator; these people are some of the very few people that knows how to encourage and provide hope for people and convert them to be an asset in the company and instead of a threat. Because there are other managers who thinks of efficient and effective people as threat, threat because they can overthrown the manager, because some managers are not that highly motivated and do not want to challenge themselves, that is why most companies development or progress are hardly achieve by these â€Å"power tripping: managers who would not want to see potential leaders to be what they deserve they can be, and inte4ad they be given challenge, they are either being ignored or left behind. For most effective managers or leaders who really provide great influence in an organization, they see company as business, not finance. This is the problem with some appointed managers or managers that are just being assigned without really understanding the position well. Actually managers are not financial comptroller, where the latter works more on how to control expenses but look into prioritizing how to increase sales and revenues. Managers forget the fact that they must lead and not always focus on the financials, because if they focus on the financials they should not be manager anymore, instead they should be working in the accounting or finance department. Another is that, managers are in the company to provide action and not just lesson. They must also provide community action, an action that would really help the company to go to its greatest potential and always dwell on how to prioritizing the important activities that needs to be done. For being an action man or woman in the company, it is also easy to find respect from the organization, since there is always hard work shown, and all of these provides great influence and eventually will result to success in the employment relationship within the organization. (Heller, R, 2007, pars. 4 and 9). Employee relations and theoretical interpretation In employment relation to employment relation, there are different types of theory that is applied in an organization. These are: (1) Unitary Theory, (2) Pluralist Theory, System, (4) Marxist, (5) Feminist, (6) Comparative, and (7) Postmodernism. For unitary theory, it is the existence of a single policy or authority that is being practice within the organization. This type of management theory is known in the very early years, where leaders form their own rule in the basis of what they think is right and people are mostly not given the rights to contradict or over rule the policy or guideline that was implemented. Classical Pluralism, is however is considered as the form of management is greatly influence by an electorate political group or any group that holds power over the society. Their main power is strengthen by the ideology that come from the community or societal group and this form of management style is well supported since it is perceived as for the good of many and not just from the group. System theory focuses is focusing on the inter-disciplinary representation of field science, which is complex nature of science, nature and science are the main basic on this theory. This also means that in every decision there is always a scientific explanation which needs to be followed or adhered. For Marxist theory, its philosophy mainly focuses on the diverse theory that Karl Marx which is mainly in the light of communism, this theory mainly involves such diverse fields like, aesthetics, ethics, ontology, epistemology and the philosophy of science as well. This is made popularize in the early strict and communistic era in Russia. On the theory about Feminism, it also provides a wide variety of discipline which mainly focuses on the common ideology of women’s role in politics, and these include: anthropology, sociology, economics, women as well as gender studies. This form of management looks after on the main concern of the greater women in the community which can be effectively being applied in the form of management within the organization. Lastly, for the theory about Postmodernism, which only shows that most of the people here are great fun of opportunities, like on and off the job training, like in the case of a project that will be eventually be started since the government has allocated some ideas in the organization. These theories have provided different impact in the organization since every theory is applied appropriately in the companies. It also provides a clear guideline as to how people can be managed effectively. Like take for instance a company that lies on the service that they provide, for example a company of systems development, which has given the authority to let users to participate in forming and firming the management standards and practices that the company must used. For the last two theories for management practices, comparative and post-modernism, for the first theory, Cooperative theory, this form of management, shows big importance to the greater majority of the people and these is brought out by the well collaborative effort shown from the employee and the management as well. This also shows that management must play big attention in their respective stores in a typical â€Å"look and feel† of the organization. (Hollinshead, Nicholls, and Tailby, 2003, pp. 9-41). The Importance of Collective Bargaining in an Organization For some companies accepting the presence of a Union is not that well accepted, because for some management it is just a source of employees of pushing other request that might even defeat the main vision or mission of the company. In fact the main objective of it is to provide a better deal of the needs of the staffs and not just raising some wants, which may lead to negative result. Companies or staffs must not always look into having an agreement that focuses not only for employee compensation or benefits but it should also focus on some other concerns like safety and help provision. This is because most industry, most especially manufacturing companies, automatically has a union and it provides a clear directive on what the policy that must be followed and this process must be strictly be send and follow up users. Collective bargaining has it own process which helps the management and the employees union to follow for better understanding of its agreement. In Ireland, this process is formed in a way that corresponds also to the company guidelines which is important to have it more appreciative and well respected by the stakeholder. (How Has Collective Bargaining Happen in Ireland, 2007).

Teacher Shortage Essay Example for Free

Teacher Shortage Essay Today teachers are not paid a lot and as a result there has been a shortage of teachers, especially good, qualified ones. Until teacher salaries are raised and teaching comes to be a desirable profession, teacher shortage is going to have a negative impact on both teachers and students. Teacher shortage is bad for students because it means an increased number of students in class. Teacher shortage is bad for teachers because larger class sizes mean more students to be responsible for and more papers to grade. Currently, most teachers are older men and women. Today there are an average of twenty teachers per district retiring ever year (Perrin). But what is going to happen when those teachers retire? Who is going to fill all those positions? Most likely, it will not be education majors currently enrolled in college because everyday, education majors are changing their majors. Teaching does not seem like a desirable profession due to the low salaries and strenuous work load. After spending thousands of dollars to earn a college degree, college students want their degree to work for them. They do not want to work a high hour, low paying job when they know they could be out making good money at an entry level computer job. Until teacher salaries are increased, things are only going to get worse. Already, many of the teaching jobs are held by substitutes, many without college degrees, and that are not always experts in the field in which they teach. With the current teacher shortage, large class sizes are just going to get larger. The problem does not sound serious right now, but what will happen when those students are doctors, teachers, or presidents years down the road? This is a serious problem that could have a very negative impact on our nations future. So, what are we doing to address the teacher shortage? Right now, recruiters are going out of the country to find qualified teachers. Recruiters are mainly tapping into India, Russia, Canada, and Spain for new teachers. While it seems like a good idea, school districts are paying high dollar to fund these recruiting trips. Districts often even have to pay a finder fee of up to five thousand dollars per teacher. They also must sponsor them for special visas, help them with housing, and hold orientations to ease the cultural transitions(Lord). Perhaps a better alternative wouldbe to use this money to increase teacher salaries. Paying for the new teachers is not the only problem with this idea. Even while the foreign teachers might be experts in their fields, what are they going to teach the students if they students can not understand them? Also, a teacher from India is not used to walking through a metal detector every day before work. Classroom discipline may also be a critical issue. Indian students tend to be more orderly and respectful. When an Indian teacher walks into a classroom, they expect the full attention of the class. Unfortunately, this is not always the case today. In this kind of case, I think it is bad for the students and the teacher. The students may not be able to understand the teacher. The teacher may not be ready for the type of students that they are going to see. So, what do we need to do about teacher shortage to make people want to go into teaching? The teachers need to be paid more money. According to Jared Bernstein, an NEA official, most teachers are underpaid at least five thousand dollars a year, based on their education skills, even taking into account summers off. Teachers are even more underpaid in Missouri. With the national average at just over forty thousand dollars per year, the Missouri average is just under thirty-five thousand dollars per year. So if most teachers are underpaid five thousand dollars, Missouri teachers are underpaid about nine thousand dollars per year (Bernstein). The First Lady, Laura Bush is even trying to help solve the nations education problem, vowing to go to college campuses and military bases to recruit desperately needed new teachers. She and President Bush are even going to try to set an example by teaching in classrooms. The First lady used to teach second grade and holds a masters degree in Library Science. A program has started called Teach for America becauseit is estimated that over thenext ten years the United States Education Department will need over two million teachers (Perrin). The program encourages college graduates to make a minimum two-year commitment to teaching. Another plan the First Lady and the President are committed to is the Troops to Teachers program. This plan is to recruit qualified teachers that are retired members of the military. Many of the retired members have degrees in science, math, and engineering. Plus, they bring something to schools that is desperately needed, discipline. Bush believes in the Troops to Teachers program so much that he plans to increase spending from three million dollars to thirty million dollars on the program (Killian). The teacher shortage is really a serious problem. But, I really do feel that the necessary steps will be made to move in the right direction. The change will not happen overnight though. Great ideas to come up with new teachers, especially the Troops to Teachers plan, are being pursued. Many of the retired military members are overqualified for the jobs. Their discipline in the classroom is much needed. The bill they are working on could be a good idea. The bill gives the districts more freedom with the money, which could be a good or a bad thing. They could use the money to hire good teachers, or they could use the money to build better facilities for the schools. The answer is not to go to other countries to find teachers because it costs too much money to go recruit teachers. Why not just use that money to increase teacher salaries?

Miscarriages of justice helped to change investigating

Miscarriages of justice helped to change investigating Investigative interviewing is of paramount importance in every legal system in the world. The development of Investigative interviewing has led to the hope that positive reaction would be received from witnesses and reliability of evidence would be achieved. However, various cases of miscarriages of justice has occurred causing lack of confidence in the criminal justice system. The purpose of this study is to learn more about how cases of miscarriages of justice have helped to change investigative interviewing practices for the better. It is hoped that information from this study may be useful in identifying the improvements in investigative interviewing as a result of cases of miscarriages of justice. One area of policing that involves considerable face-to-face interaction with members of the public and where expectations of both police and public are likely to be influential and where relations of trust and confidence are vital is when police officers interview witnesses of crime (Roberts, 2010). In the past, police officers lacked confidence in themselves and their abilities, and they constantly assumed that every suspect was guilty therefore failing to extract accurate and reliable evidence, had poor interviewing skills and where unprofessional in the approach in which they carried out their interviews.  In any police inquiry, police officers may be interested in only a proportion of the information that a witness can provide (Robert, 2010).They resorted to violence and verballing during interviews and this resulted in false confessions from suspects. In the past, investigators in both the public sector and the police saw interviews as a means of gaining a confession, rather than gathering accurate information and a full account (Shawyer and Walsh, 2007). Confessions could vary from voluntary confession where there is no existence of external factors, coerced compliant confession such as aggressive questioning and coerced internalized confession where the interviewee beliefs he committed the crime due to pressure and stress put on them during the interviewing process. Vulnerable suspects such as children and people with physical or mental challenges are prone to coerced internalized confession thereby resulting to miscarriages of justice. Miscarriage of justice arose as a result of police malpractice and incompetence, inadequate prosecution processes, problematic trial practices and failure of authorities to protect citizens from known dangers (Adler and Gray, 2010). Fishers inquiry 1977 showed wrongly convictions of three youths who confessed to the murder of Maxwell Confait. His report highlighted that two of the youth were vulnerable suspects and that there were tendencies for the confessions to be achieved by violence, hectoring or bullying. There was no evidence to show that the replies of these suspects were said freely and accurately recorded. Fisher recommended that a Royal commission examine the law and procedure relating to the prosecution of offenders and thus creating a better framework regulating custodial questioning of suspects by the police. The Royal commission on criminal procedure commissioned a series of research studies including one that examined the police role in the investigation of offences (Adler and Gray, 2010). The Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure believed it was essential that the public have confidence in the method of investigation by the police in order to enhance co-operation. In 1975 the Guildford Four were jailed for life for bombing pubs in Guildford. The case was abolished after the four men had spent 15 years in jail. The case against them was found to be flawed and the credibility of the notes of interview was undermined as being not written up immediately. In 1974, The Birmingham Six were also convicted IRA bombers accused of killing 21 people and injuring more than 160. They spent 16 years in jail before being released in 1991 after the forensic evidence which had formed much of the basis for the case was found to be questionable. Further the Maguire Seven (1976) including six members of the same family were imprisoned for handling explosives. The scientific evidence which formed the basis of the case was later discredited and the case overturned in 1991(Green, 2009). All these miscarriages of justice emphasized the flaws in the criminal justice system. This brought about the introduction of Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE), 1984. The act pr ovided a Code of Practice which covered various areas such as detention, treatment and questioning by police and tape recording of interviews. The code of practice gave detainees the right to notify someone of their arrest, access to a free legal advice, no change to the rights to remain silent. It also emphasized the improvement in the area of note taking and tape recording, the presence of an appropriate adult when a vulnerable suspect is interviewed, the treatment of the suspect in custody and regulations on which the interview would be based on. It set out the right balance between the power of the police and the freedom and rights of the public. The secrecy of police stations was challenged: officers became used to seeing solicitors, social workers, family members and researchers in custody areas (Dixon, 2010).The purpose was to introduce the use of tape recording during interviews and eradicate the use of violence and verballing to get a confession. However, adequate training was lacked in the use of tape recording by police officers therefore creating grounds for them to continue interviewing without tape recorders hence interrogation took place in an environment which increases the vulnerability of the suspects and maximizes the authority and control of the police (Green, 2009). The court became aware of officers lack of compliance to PACE and increased pressure in order to ensure compliance by making the investigators listen and review their performance. The use of such inappropriate tactics, however, was found to decrease after the introduction of PACE (Irving and Mckenzie, 1989). However, police interviewing was still poor even after the PACE was introduced and this was due to inadequate training in interviewing. Police officers have the mentality that interviewing skills cannot be acquired in class but in practice and therefore tend to act like their mentors who hardly portray the correct skills. Police officers training was more on taking reports rather than gathering information. In the case of Cardiff 3, who were alleged with the murder of Lynette White in 1988 spent four years in prison before it was admitted that they were victims of miscarriage of justice. Although the police officers used tape recording and a solicitor was present during the interview it was observed that the approach taken by the officer was one of hostility and intimidation to the suspect. The development of DNA science and pressure placed by Satish Sekar helped to identify the actual murderer and proved their innocence. In the case of Thomas Henron who was on trial for the murder of a young girl, this was not a miscarriage of justice but rather a failure in investigative approach. The investigation was based on pressurizing the suspect, offering of unreasonable incentive and falsification of the witness evidence. These provided a background of distrust of police and shaken confidence in beliefs about the matchless superiority of English justice (Dixon, 2010). These cases emphasized th e need for improvements in the interrogation of suspects and the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) published the first national training for interviewing known as the PEACE approach to investigative interviewing which was introduced in 1992 which was aimed at ensuring that investigators developed adequate skills in order to conduct interview with integrity and ensure interviews conducted are in line with the law. Following a series of miscarriages of justice in the UK where police interviewing methods were severely criticized an ethics-based approach to interviewing was devised that aimed to minimize the risks of unreliable evidence and negative reactions from witnesses (Robert, 2010). An investigative interview is a structured conversation with a party to a crime with the aim of recording that persons account of events (Green, 2009). Investigative interviewing was developed by a group of psychologists and police practitioners (Dixon, 2010). The role of investigative interview is to approach interviews with an open mind and fairness (even if questioning has to be persistent) in order to obtain accurate and reliable information from suspects, witnesses and victims with the aim of discovering the truth and testing the information received against what the officer already knows or has reasonably established and also bearing in mind that vulnerable people, whether victims, witnesses or suspects m ust be treated with particular consideration at all times (National Crime Faculty, 1996, p.18) . PEACE is an acronym for P-Planning and Preparation, E-Engage and Explain, A-Account, C-Closure, and E-Evaluation. PEACE was a five day training organized to improve investigative interviewing. Planning and preparation aids in understanding the essence of the interview and the impact on the investigation. The officer should highlight areas to focus based on points to prove and possible defences. These points should be compared with evidence received. All evidence received in favor of the interviewee should also be highlighted as the investigator has a duty to be open-minded. Adequate knowledge of PACE also helps the officer to be ready prior to the interview. Planning and preparation is essential has it helps the officer prepare and plan for an interview before the commencement hence achieving the aim and objective of the interview. The investigator explains the purpose and expectations of the interview to the suspect thus creating the right atmosphere. During this stage it is essential to create a rapport with the suspect as this makes the suspect comfortable with the investigator. In order to achieve rapport the investigator has to pay adequate attention to the process of social skills cultivates an active listening strategy habit. There are three classes of witnesses, the compliant witness, reluctant witness and the hostile witness. Compliant witnesses are individuals who wish to cooperate fully with the police and are keen to pass information to them. Reluctant witnesses may not wish to interact with the police and may not be forthcoming with information. Hostile witnesses are individuals who may be overtly hostile to the police, may refuse to give information, and may even attempt to disrupt interviews (Robert, 2010). In order to get substantive and quality account an investigator could either use the cognitive interview or the free recall interview but in a situation where the suspect is being difficult the investigator could use conversation management. Free call allows the interviewee to fully articulate their account followed by probing to obtain uncontaminated detail. Conversation management on the other hand is usually with suspects or uncooperative interviewees who require free recall followed by prob ing and challenges where appropriate. Cognitive interview is a full cognitive reinstatement with a compliant interviewee who is willing to cooperate fully (Green, 2009). When closing the interview the investigator ensures that accurate account has been received thereby creating a positive impression to the public and preventing negative emotional reactions such as anger and anxiety. The investigator also has to maintain rapport in order to minimize the witness anxiety and distress and maximizes the disclosure of useful information. Evaluating the quality of the information received performance of the interviewer in terms of self evaluation and identifying other information that would be needed for the interview. Training was organized for all police officers in order to educate them on the PEACE model. The facilitators of the training were majorly inexperienced trainers rather than qualified investigators. The police officers did not embrace the PEACE model at first and this affected the purposed role of the model. Clarke and Milne (2001) conducted a national evaluation of PEACE by examining interviewers investigative skills when conducting interviews with suspects and witnesses. They found a great gap in the interviewing skills of both the trained and untrained officers of the PEACE model. However, improvements were noted in the area of legal requirements, ethical approach and questioning skills rather than the communication aspects of the interview or the structural development of the interviewees account. Instead of the police to focus on the verbal and non- verbal actions of the interviewee and using that as a base for the next question their focus was on statement taking and this therefore caused poor recording of account and interviewing. They also observed poor interviewing skills as officers were using less of cognitive interviewing and less conversation management. This caused officers to be frustrated and allowing them return to the old ways of interviewing. The original PEACE model w as rigid as it assumed that all interviewees would be co-operative with the interviewer and this was not the case in most interviews. Although the PEACE model was generally accepted as it offered an excellent framework for investigative interviews and its principles were sound it was still obvious that a reform was needed (Green, 2009). In the years following the implementation of PEACE certain forces recognized that the one size fits all model was not sufficient to cater for all needs (Griffiths, Milne, 2005). Crimes which were regarded as serious such as murder required a more effective and ethical interview process. Clark and Milne (2001) made 19 recommendations and the focus was on interview guidance, supervision and training. They recommended an interview supervisor policy because they observed that the quality of the interviews where better when supervisors were present. Supervision would enable efficient use of the interview guidance and help assess the skills of the officers thereby indicating areas where improvements are required. These recommendations were taken up by the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) and further developed into the ACPO Investigative Interviewing Strategy: A national initiative. They also observed that the officers were bombarded with so much to learn when they had not grasped the earlier stage. A five tiered structure approach was introduced to improve the quality of investigative interviewing for various levels of officers. Tier 1 was meant for Foundation for probationers and it focused on basic investigation highlighting the importance of free recall and conversation management in obtaining account when carrying out an interview. Tier 2 focused on uniform investigators and detectives and enhanced cognitive interview was taught in this stage. Tier 3 was meant for specialists. This tier looks into enhanced cognitive interviews in advanced interviewing of suspects and specialist interviews that is, interviewing of vulnerable witnesses. Tier 4 was meant for interview supervisors who do not necessarily have to have the skills of the specialist but must at least be trained up to Tier 2 as these supervisors duty is to identify areas in which trainings are required, ensure ethical approach is used when conducting an interview and standards are maintained (Green, 2009). Tier 5 focuses on interview advisors, managers, coordinator for specialist interviews whose role is to advise senior investigative officers on essential interviewing strategies for serious and complex crime. Thinking of an investigation in this holistic way has brought great benefit to the overall strategy of a major inquiry some of which are highly complex long term investigations requiring intimate knowledge of detail and consistency (Green, 2009). Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) and the National Policing Improvement Agency (NPIA) sponsored a program which is aimed at enhancing improvement in the area of professional capability and experience of investigators. This resulted in enhancement in the role of supervisors and interview advisors to ensuring officers conduct investigative interviewing at a professional level. It is clear, therefore that poor investigative interviewing would lead to several cases of miscarriages of justice. The fact that most officers views on interviews where based on aggression and uncertainty rather than acceptance and enthusiasm caused a lot of problems in the legal system. Focusing on getting a confession in order to speedily apprehend an offender rather than obtaining accurate and reliable account from the suspects, victims or witnesses in order to achieve good quality information during an investigative process could be damaging in the sense that suspects, victims and witnesses especially vulnerable suspects would be prone to be apprehended for offenses which they did not commit. In order to minimize miscarriages of justice good questioning skills must be developed by investigators to attain an accurate and reliable account. Improvement in technology and Forensic evidence has helped in reducing cases of miscarriages of justice. For example the use of DNA which could help in determining the actual suspect, CCTV which shows a recording of what happened at a particular venue at a certain time and also the use of lie detectors which could be used to determine if the suspect is lying. Investigators should also tend to be sensitive when interviewing a vulnerable suspect, victims and witnesses as this would go a long way in preventing future miscarriages of justice. Above all, investigative interview as improved over the years through the introduction of different Acts such as The Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure (1978-1981) which brought about wide ranging protections for suspects. Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) focused on the use of tape recorders when interviewing a suspect with the aim of reducing the violence and verballing of suspects. The PEACE approach brought about preparing and planning an interview before commencement, engage and explain to the witness or suspect or victims the aim of the interview, expectations and the proc edure in which the interview would be carried out, the process of account retrieval, maintaining rapport and preventing negative reactions from suspect while bringing the interview to a close and evaluating the product of the interview. Trainings were also organized for investigator in order to enhance questioning skill by using enhanced cognitive interviews, conversation management techniques. Interviewing supervisory policy was also introduced to aid increase in the quality of the information received during the interviews and identifies areas where improvements are required. This study has shown that investigative interviewing is of paramount importance in the legal system and in order to achieve these investigators must constantly improve in their interviewing skills. Improvements in investigative interviewing to be effective and ethical has helped to reduce the cases of miscarriages of justice

Yank as a Modern Day Oedipus in O Neills Play, The Hairy Ape Essay

Yank as a Modern Day Oedipus in O' Neill's Play, The Hairy Ape The representation of tragedy today has adapted itself to more humanistic, base and symbolic concerns. Often, they are commentaries on society just as much as they are on the nature of man. Although O' Neill insists that his play "The Hairy Ape" is not a tragedy, but rather a dark comedy, the play follows the definition of a tragedy. The basic points that make up a tragedy still remain the same, even if they have to be slightly modified to be relevant to today's audience. Despite this, The Hairy Ape bears a striking resemblance to the quintessential Greek tragedy, Oedipus Rex. The only direct challenge to the Aristotelian definition of tragedy is the portrayal of the tragic hero as not only not being a "noble" in the traditional sense, but usually as a working class, common man. Arthur Miller discusses this belief in his essay "Tragedy and the Common Man". In it, he insists that "we never hesitate to attribute to the well placed and the exalted the very same mental processes as the lowly" and "if the exaltation of tragic action were truly the property of the high bred character alone, it is inconceivable that the mass of mankind should cherish tragedy above all other forms, let alone be capable of understanding it"(Miller 1162). According to Aristotle, a tragedy concerns a person of noble stature. In the modern sense, as explained by Miller, "noble" does not necessarily mean royalty or upper class, merely that the tragic protagonist "is ready to lay down his life, if need be, to secure one thing - his sense of personal dignity"(1162). Yank is willing to do this. His sense of justice is primitive in that he is not concerned with the consequences of his reve... ... leads him back to the realization that he was the criminal that he had been pursuing. Works Cited and Consulted Carpenter, Frederic I. Eugene O’Neill. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1964. Clark, Marden J. â€Å"Tragic Effect in The Hairy Ape.† Modern Drama 10 1968 Egri, Peter. â€Å"'Belonging' Lost: Alienation and Dramatic Form in Eugene O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape† in Critical Essays on Eugene O’Neill. James J. Martine, ed. Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1984. Miller, Arthur. "Tragedy and the Common Man." Weales, Gerald, ed. Death of a Salesman: Text and Criticism. New York: Penguin Books 1996 O’Neill, Eugene. â€Å"The Hairy Ape† in Four Plays by Eugene O’Neill. New York: Signet Classic, 1998. Vernant, J.-P. â€Å"Tensions and Ambiguities in Greek Tragedy.† In J.-P. Vernant and P. Vidal-Naquet, eds., Tragedy and Myth in Ancient Greece. Sussex, N. J. 1981.

Parliament works best when the government controls both houses. :: essays research papers

Even before federation, our country had adopted and used a Democratic system of government. Democracy has played a major role in our system of government as it has developed over the decades since it was brought to Australian shores by the English and the first democratic parliaments were created. Over time Democracy has grown stronger as this system became the foundation of our society. Democracy in our government must also have an efficient system for it to function properly otherwise the disagreements in parliament and different views on issues in Australia would tear our government apart. But how far can we go in our government before its Efficiency begins to affect our Democracy. A balance of Democracy vs. Efficiency has been engulfed in our Parliaments with Australia having a bicameral system. However it is very well possible for this to favour a more efficient system if the government manages gains control of both Houses. Democracy can be easily defined as a â€Å"rule of government by the people, and for the people†. Whilst incorporating the principles of majority rule, the protection of minority rights, equal participation, fair and frequent elections and the rule of law. This is done through elected representatives by the public. In our government we have political parties (interest groups) of people acting in politics to secure goals which they think are important and nearly always acting on behalf of other people whom they say think these goals are important too. The common complexity of this is that these goals often clash with other political party’s that have other issues and views. The biggest example of this is the clash between the Liberal Party and the Australian Labour Party. The goal of Democracy is to let the people have there say and for the representatives to decide on the best decision for the Commonwealth and the people. A definition of Efficiency can be described as productive whilst using the minimum waste or effort. In relation to politics, our system is an efficient and working government. Our Legislative sector of government has proven itself as a working system in our commonwealth and has had no major issues with its process. In most cases after elections the party with the majority in the lower house which has formed government usually does not have control of the upper house. The control usually hangs with the smaller parties and independents and they hold the balance of power which can decide the fate of bills that have been sent from the lower house.

Essay --

Science project: Creating a cell Cell membrane The cell membrane in the plant controls what comes into the cell. If something is needed the membrane lets the cell get past. In a plant, the membrane is surrounding the cytoplasm and the cell itself. The main function: The cell membrane has the important job to support the cell membrane and cytoskeleton inside of it. The membrane does the same job to the cytoplasm as it does to the cell. It lets some proteins in and keeps others out. In a plant, the membrane also serves an attachment to the cytoplasm. This means the membrane supports the cell and keeps it in shape. The membrane is made up of two parts, the internal and outer membrane. The outer membrane controls what comes in of the cell and how much of it is needed. The inner membrane supports the cell and controls the exchange of organelles from its cell to another. However, membranes are semi-permeable. This means that they allow very small molecules in even if not needed. Like oxygen and carbon molecules. The cell transport proteins to other cells that keeps the cell healthier. Other parts that help the membrane transport organelles are transmembrane proteins. These proteins are spread around the whole membrane. There are four types of transme mbrane proteins transporters, receptors, anchor and enzyme. Transporters carry one molecule to another. The enzyme transforms a molecule to a different form. An anchor protein can connect an outer molecule with an inner molecule. What are they made of; Cell membranes are made up of a phospholipids bilayer. The bilayer is made of many phospholipids side by side. The phospholipids has one glycerol two fatty acids and one phosphate heads. This compares to a †¦ Laser alarm: ... ...reate a chemical reaction to make NADPH and ATP. Now the dark reaction. The ATP from the light reaction is used to make carbohydrates from hydrogen. The carbohydrates posses and energy that are given by the ATP and NADPH. This carbohydrate has the chemical energy to make glucose (sugar) that is the main source of their food. The chloroplast’s ability to do the process photosynthesis is not only helpful to plant but to animals that eat plants. This because a plant cannot live without food and an animal’s food is a plant. What is it made of: A chloroplast is made up of lipids and protein membranes that are folded in a complex way. This compares to a: Solar panel: Similarities: †¢ Converts sun light to energy †¢ Just like the chloroplast, the solar panel stores the energy from the day so they can use it for the night too. †¢

Mind or Body Philosophy Paper

Alexandra Williams Philosophy 1100 The Mind and/or Body Argument For thousands of years philosophers have acknowledged a boundary between or physical selves and our mental selves. However with the passing of time and the advancements of science whether we are governed by our minds or just our bodies has been debated more and more. There are a long line of ancient thinkers who contemplated the mind-body relationship issue starting with Plato and Aristotle (Waller, 2011). Without knowing what we are run by we can never truly reach our full potential because we may be limited by our physical or mental selves.The mind or body argument consists of arguments for the existence of only the mind, the body, and a combination of the two. Many philosophers put faith in the idea that our bodies are separate entities than our minds. Because they are absolutely certain that we do think they feel they can be sure that we are our minds. Bodies just happen to be our anchors and we can surely live with out them. Rene Descartes once stated â€Å"I exist as a thinking thing. What then is it that I am? A thinking thing. What is a thinking thing?Is it a thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, abstains from willing, that also can be aware of images and sensations? †¦ It is certain that I am truly distinct from my body, and I can exist without it. † (Dr. Bob Zunjic, University of Rhode Island). The idea of our existence truly being only our minds we could very well leave our own bodies and without needing to feed our bodies or be weighed down by the frailty of them who knows how long we could live or how much we could learn?While materialist believe that everything is made of matter Aristotle had an argument against this â€Å"if the intellect were material then it could not receive all of the forms. If the intellect were a specific material organ (or part of one) then it would be restricted to receiving only certain kinds of information, as the eye is restr icted to receiving visual data and the ear is restricted to receiving auditory data. Since the intellect is capable of receiving and reflecting on all forms of data, then it must not be a physical organ and, hence, it must be immaterial† (Waller, 2011).While many philosophers believe that the mind is the ultimate power house others believe that the body is. For the last hundred years or so materialism has been the dominant theory in metaphysics. With the rapid advances of science the ideas that our existence is merely physical have been more prominent. Materialism or physicalism is the idea that everything that exists is no more extensive than it’s physical properties, meaning that there is nothing that exists that isn’t tangible.Because scientists have been able to explain things that many accounted to the work of a higher power before many have come to believe that existence is simpler to explain than it was previously. The idea of Ockham’s razor is used to argue against arguments of the mind. Ockham’s razor basically says that simple explanations are typically the best (Waller,2011). Why try to argue that God made the planets orbit the earth with no proof when it is easier to say and prove that all planets revolve around the sun? Materialists believe that we can only be sure of the things that we can touch or see so there is only one substance in the world: matter.Many people have an issue with materialism and the argument of body over mind however because it leads to moral issues. If the only things that exist are physical, things that we can see, touch, etc. then how can there be religion? We cannot see God therefore, in a materialist’s opinion, he cannot exist. There are obviously philosophers that believe in both mind by itself or matter by itself, but there are those who believe in a combination of the two as well. While some philosophers choose to believe that either the mind or the body is superior to the othe r many philosophers believe that both mind and body are what we are made of.According to Bertrand Russell â€Å"the stuff of which the world of our experience is composed is, in my belief, neither mind nor matter, but something more primitive than either. Both mind and matter seem to be composite, and the stuff of which they are compounded lies in a sense between the two, in a sense above them both, like a common ancestor. † (The Analysis of Mind, 1921) To philosophers who believe this, beings are a combination of their physical and mental actions and abilities.Rene Descartes is closely associated with the idea of dualism, which is the idea that mental occurrences are non-physical and that the mind and the body are distinct. He associated the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and differentiated it from the physical brain of a person. Descartes is known as the first philosopher to note the difference between the mind and body. Dualists make their points with such exam ples as when they body is injured it causes pain to the mind and that at times, even when they body is hurt the mind postpones pain in the form of shock.If the body or the mind simply existed by themselves then we wouldn’t feel pain because it’s a physical action with a mental response. You need both in the equation to get pain as the result. Dualism also has an advantage because it is consistent with our experiences. When we have ideas or feelings we don’t think of them in concepts of size, weight, color, shaper, etc. We think of them in terms of good, bad, wise, immature, or otherwise. It also helps explain certain things like human abilities. Things like the ideas of freedom, morality, ethics, and other things that make us discernibly human.Now on top of dualism, Descartes proposed a theory called interactionism, believing that the body and the mind had an actual point where one began and the other ended. He believed it to be where the pineal gland is because at the time they didn’t know what it did. However with the explanation of the pineal gland’s real purpose came the expulsion of interactionism (Waller, 2011). Also dualism came under skepticism because of it’s tendency to be a more complex explanation of things than was needed. Metaphysical issues such as the mind or body dispute are one of the most debated subjects in the philosophical world.So many great minds have been stumped by this issue. To label existence as purely physical means the dismissal of the idea of a higher power. To say that life is purely mental fails to explain how radically different realities interact, such as sensations like pain. Even the idea that both interact together can be challenged because there is no way to fully explain how the two connect and are translated into each other. Sadly this is a question unlikely to have a solution ever, or at least no time in the near future.This can almost be frightening because until we have an a nswer to these inquiries we won’t be able to truly know ourselves or the things around us. In agreement with Thomas Nagel †What is needed is something we do not have: a theory of conscious organisms as physical systems composed of chemical elements and occupying space, which also have an individual perspective on the world, and in some cases a capacity for self-awareness as well. In some way that we do not now understand, our minds as well as our bodies come into being when these materials are suitably combined and organized.The strange truth seems to be that certain complex, biologically generated physical systems, of which each of us is an example, have rich non-physical properties. An integrated theory of reality must account for this, and I believe that if and when it arrives, probably not for centuries, it will alter our conception of the universe as radically as anything has to date. †(The View From Nowhere, 1989). Works Cited Nagel, Thomas. The View From No where. N. p. : n. p. , 1989. Print. Waller, Bruce N. Consider Philosophy. N. p. : n. p. , n. d. , 2011. Print. Zunjic, Bob. University of Rhode Island. N. p. , n. d. Web. 24 Apr. 2012.

If society valued people ONLY Essay

This prep is exploring the Question Who am I? If society care ford state nevertheless economically (i. e. by using money) Which theatrical role of commonwealth would be the most in invaluable and why? The case of people that would be the most valuable would be the people with the most skills and knowledge. Doctors and Surgeons would be in truth valuable, to armorial bearing and treat all of the sick and hurt people. Children with great knowledge and skills would be valuable because you impart need new people to tack the roles of scientists and doctors when the old ones retire.Scientists would also be very valuable, to progress with technology and research. skinny apprizeers would be quite valuable to teach children correctly. Even dustmen would be valuable because without them bedding material would pile up in the streets. Which type of people would be the least valuable and why? The homeless would not be valuable because society would not expediency from them, they c ould even be a check mark because people would have to pay for them and mete out for them. Popstars would have little respect because they assumet help society in any good way.Children with poor procreation would not be very valuable, because they will have no skills to use in their work when they become adults. All preliterate people would have little value because writing and reading forms a very important part of society, in Britain, today. How would you be valued and why? I would value myself as quite unimportant, seen as I am I child with no medical or scientific skills. I am, though, receiving a very good education and could go on to learn may different skills, or alternatively I could go on to work for the council as a dust bin man.

Goals of Linguistic Essay

Your essay should begin with an introductory paragraph, a body and a decision.Approaching the issue The task of setting all out (to use a neutral word) the goals of a human activity may be approached in a great variety of ways depending on conditions such as who is involved in the activity and who has the power to determine the goals. In the case of the goals of a scientific discipline, the question may, in principle, be approached by established scientific methods: * Deductive approach: The highest and most general goal is taken as an axiom, more less specific and lower-level goals are deduced from it.* Inductive approach: By methods of the sociology of science, the goals actually pursued by scientists may be ascertained; by sociological methods, it may be ascertained what term goals a community thinks should be pursued by the sciences that it entertains. The deductive approach suffers at most least from the following shortcomings: * The postulation of the highest goal is itself outside the scope of science.Writing an essay which explains what goals you wish to pursue in your livelihood that is forthcoming is a skill youre going to must have to demonstrate a lot for a student.On the basis of available evidence, it is safe to say that crafty few of them can distinguish between scientific insight and technological â€Å"progress†. Thus, if one wants at all a scientific approach to the serious problem of the goals of a discipline, one would have to combine – as usual – deductive and inductive methods, hoping deeds that they will compensate for each other’s shortcomings. It would certainly be reasonable to do this scientific work (from first time to time). However, it has apparently not been done.

Its tough to own make but its for getting a booming essay vital.Science is the pursuit of objective knowledge/understanding (Greek episteme, German Erkenntnis). The attainment of such common knowledge is its ultimate goal. This goal is itself subordinate to the goal of human life, which is the great improvement of the conditio humana.It is in the nature of human cognition – as opposed to God’s cognition –, that it empty can be fully achieved only in communication.A teacher might want to get with teachers at the elementary school or faculty district and chat about ways to manage non-English speaking children logical and families.* On the spiritual side, the human mind is enriched if it understands something; and this in itself is a contribution to improving the conditio humana. * On the practical side, understanding something is a presupposition for controlling it. Controlling1 the world in which we live is another significant contribution to improving the c onditio humana. Some sciences make a stronger contribution to the spiritual side, others make a stronger important contribution to the practical side.

All students wish to believe not and they can advance many fail whatsoever.This epistemic interest constitutes applied linguistics. Given the divergence in the epistemic interest of pure and applied science, there can be no universal schema by which the goals and tasks of a science should be systematized.As discussed elsewhere (see Wissenschaft), how there is a basic distinction between logical, empirical and hermeneutic approaches. Linguistics shares components of all of them.Instruction is occurring below educators direction.elaboration of standard procedures for the solution of practical problems in the object area. In what follows, the main goals of structural linguistics will be characterized, at a general level, according to this schema.2. Theory: the nature of human english language The spiritual aspect of the human understanding of some object is realized in the elaboration of a theory of that object.

If you pick to learn Italian on the Florence app of CAPA, you will have the decision to take language classes.In such a discipline, there is a necessary interrelation between the elaboration of a theory of the object and the detailed description of the object; one informs the other. Furthermore, since speech and even languages are volatile, they have to be documented. The tasks of linguistics in this area may be systematized as follows: 1. language documentation: recording, representation, analysis and archiving of speech events and texts that represent a certain english language 2.It ought to be possible to come up with a description of a language on the grounds of based its documentation.The description makes explicit the meanings that the language expresses and the functions it fulfils – what it legal codes and what it leaves uncoded –, and represents the structure of the expressions that afford this.It does all of this in the most systematic and comprehensive way possible. Such a description may be used for a variety of purposes, most of which are mentioned below in the section on applied linguistics. Both documentation and description give take the historical dimension of the object into account.

Languages have developed means of representing quantities.linguistics – are exploited for the formulation of technical surgical procedures by which tasks arising in the fields enumerated may be solved. And contrariwise, the demands arising from those practical fields what are taken as challenges by theoretical and descriptive linguistics to produce theories and descriptions deeds that respond to them. 5.Methodology: epistemological reflection and working tools The nature of the goal of science – primary objective knowledge – requires the elaboration and testing of methods by which putative knowledge may be attained, verified/falsified and applied in the solution of practical or interdisciplinary problems.Its part of that.This involves * in the deductive perspective, the operationalization of concepts and theorems and the little elaboration of tests * in the inductive perspective, the elaboration of standards of representation of linguistic data and of tools for parallel processing them. While a contribution from general epistemology may be expected for the epistemological side of linguistic methodology, its operational side is entirely the responsibility of the particular discipline. Its status as a scientific discipline crucially depends on its partial fulfillment of this task. 6.

Without a doubt, it plays a role in the creation of cultural identity.In other words, no strict discipline is autonomous and self-contained. The contribution that it makes to human understanding can only be assessed if it is compared and combined with other disciplines.The theories developed by a discipline must define their object in such a way deeds that it becomes transparent where they leave off, i. e.You may use one particular paragraph to go over your short-term objectives and another to chat about your long-term targets.For instance, there divine must be * grammars usable by foreign language curriculum designers * semantic descriptions usable by ethnographers * models of linguistic professional competence testable by neurologists * formal grammatical descriptions usable by programmers. Finally, linguistics must be capable of and receptive in taking up insights and challenges from other disciplines.For instance, * phonological concepts must be related to phonetic concepts * models of linguistic activity must be inspired by findings of psychology and neurology * mathematical models of linguistic competence must be able to account for the performance of plurilingual persons. Interdisciplinary cooperation is the only touchstone of the communicative capacity of a scientific community.

Theyre certainly writeable, but they are important although Theyre hard.Empiry: documentation and description of languages 3. Practice: application of linguistics 4. Methodology: epistemological reflection and working tools 5. Cooperation: interdisciplinary fertilization These goals do not belong to the same level.Among our goals is to aid others answer the questions in life.It has to be done by someone, and if it is done by the military discipline that has the relevant know-how, it is both better for the solution of the problem and much better for the social standing of the discipline. Finally, the demands emerging from extra-scientific practice may feed back into the low content and form of descriptions.Goals #4 and #5 are more science-immanent. Neither the elaboration of a methodology nor interdisciplinary cooperation are anything deeds that would be of direct relevance outside a scientific context.

At is the notion of equal pay for equivalent work.My first second aim is to keep God first.My aim is to simply reach all my desired goals.Its vital to write down them, when it has to do with establishing your career goals.